Insect Pest Management Strategies Research Articles

Farmers’ Knowledge, Perceptions and Practices in Managing Weeds and Insect Pests of Common Bean in Northern Tanzania

Weeds and insect pests are among the serious constraints in common bean production in most rural communities. A survey of 169 smallholder farmers was conducted in two common bean-growing districts in northern Tanzania. The aim was to assess farmers’ knowledge, perceptions, current management practices and challenges in order to develop sustainable weed and insect pest management strategies. The results revealed that 83% of farmers perceived insect pests as the major constraint in common bean production, while 73% reported weeds as the main drawback. Insect pest management was mainly achieved through the use of synthetic pesticides, however, only 24% of farmers were able to apply, the rest could not afford due to high cost, limited access and lack of knowledge. Only 6.5% of farmers were aware of non-chemical methods and 2.1% did not practice any method in managing insect pests, both in the field and during storage. Moreover, farmers generally relied on experience in managing insect pests and weeds, and about 43% did not see the need to consult extension officers. These findings indicate that there is a need to sensitize and train farmers on the sustainable methods for pest and weed management in common bean farming systems in northern Tanzania.

Fumigant toxicity of eugenol and its negative effects on biological development of Callosobruchus maculatus L

The protection of stored products from insect damages, when accomplished, is mostly relying on the application of synthetic insecticides with serious health and environmental issues in addition to risks of selection of resistant insect populations associated with such practice. The use of plants derived compounds have been presented as sound strategy for sustainable insect pest management. Eugenol is an aromatic component of natural occurrence in essential oils of numerous plants. known for its repellent and insecticidal bioactivities against different insect species. Here, we investigated the fumigant application of eugenol to control the cowpea weevil Callosobruchus maculatus (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Bruchinae) by assessing toxicity, effects on biological development (including emergence inhibition) and repellency to these weevil. Besides a good fumigant insecticidal activity, eugenol exposure resulted in a dose-dependent decrease of the growth rate of C. maculatus associated with a steady reduction in bean mass losses. Additionally, inhibition of offspring was upper 50% when adults were exposed to lethal and sublethal concentrations. significant inhibition of the offspring emergence was achieved after the exposure of parental adults to lethal and sublethal doses of eugenol. Furthermore, adult weevils were repelled away from beans exposed to high dose (LD99) of eugenol in contrast with their attraction to the beans treated with lower dose (LD50). Our findings suggest that eugenol has potential as control tool to be used in sustainable management startegies of C. maculatus.

The efficacy of trunk injections of emamectin benzoate and phosphorous acid for control of obliquebanded leafroller and apple scab on semi-dwarf apple

Trunk injections reduce pesticide inputs and environmental contamination, and recent work has addressed apple production systems. Insecticides and fungicides have been demonstrated for apple tree injection, however combinations of the two have not yet been tested. Trunk injections of the systemic insecticide emamectin benzoate and systemic acquired resistance (SAR) fungicide phosphorous acid were performed on mature apple trees to combine management strategies for foliar insect pests and apple scab (Venturia inaequalis). Injections of emamectin benzoate followed by phosphorous acid into the same set of injection ports resulted in higher mortality of Choristoneura rosaceana larvae and lower incidence of apple scab compared to the control. Scab incidence on trees in which phosphorous acid was injected into the same set of ports before emamectin benzoate were not different from control trees early in the growing season. Injections of emamectin benzoate and phosphorous acid into the same holes in either order showed higher mortality and reduced larval feeding in C. rosaceana bioassays compared with products injected into separate holes. This study demonstrates that two pesticides can interact dynamically within the vascular system of a tree, which has important implications for expanding the utility of trunk injection for fruit tree management.

Decoding of chemical communication in insect pests and its manipulation for their management in citrus (Citrus spp.)

The semio-chemicals in general have environmental benefits associated with their use, in contrast to conventional insecticides. These semio-chemicals are inherently different from synthetic insecticides in terms of their mode of action and subsequent impact on the environment and human health. Although a number of outstanding successes have proved the potential of pheromone technology, the use of semio-chemicals is still in its early stages in India. It can be safely predicted that, as farming practices, the demand for semio-chemical technology will increase steadily which requires continuous and equal efforts of researchers, industry and farmers. Development of semio-chemical based push pull strategies using pheromones, repellents of insect pests and attractants of bio-agents for the management of insect pests in citrus (Citrus spp.) and citrus based farming systems needs immediate attention as these are known to be eco-friendly insect pest management strategies.

Evaluation of Insecticides induced hormesis on the demographic parameters of Myzus persicae and expression changes of metabolic resistance detoxification genes

Insecticide induced-hormesis is a bi-phasic phenomenon generally characterized by low-dose induction and high-dose inhibition. It has been linked to insect pest outbreaks and insecticide resistance, which have importance in the integrated pest management (IPM). In this paper, hormesis effects of four insecticides on demographic parameters and expression of genes associated with metabolic resistance were evaluated in a field collected population of the green peach aphid, Myzus persicae Sulzer. The bioassay results showed that imidacloprid was more toxic than acetamiprid, deltamethrin and lambda-cyhalothrin. After exposure to sublethal doses of acetamiprid and imidacloprid for four generations, significant prolonged nymphal duration and increased fecundity were observed. Subsequently, mean generation time (T) and gross reproductive rate (GRR) was significantly increased. Moreover, expression of CYP6CY3 gene associated with resistance to neonicotinoids was increased significantly compared to the control. For pyrethriods, across generation exposure to sublethal doses of lambda cyhalothrin and deltamethrin prolonged the immature development duration. However, the expression of E4 gene in M. persicase was decreased by deltamethrin exposure but increased by lambda cyhalothrin. Based on results, demographic fitness parameters were effected by hormetic dose and accompanied with detoxifying genes alteration, hence, which would be evaluated in developing optimized insect pest management strategies.

Expression of GNA and biting site-restricted cry1Ac in cotton; an efficient attribution to insect pest management strategies

Insect-resistant transgenic cotton has been commercialized for two decades. Most of the introduced cultivars express Bt gene(s) constitutively under the control of 35S promoter in whole-plant tissues. However, there have been other promoters considered by researchers to confine the toxin expression to targeted organ and tissues. We developed a triple-gene construct including GNA, cry1Ac and cp4 epsps genes. We attempted to confine cry1Ac expression to insect biting sites by cloning it to downstream of a wound-inducible promoter isolated from Asparagus officinalis (AoPR1). Moreover, to broaden the range of resistance, GNA was driven by the 35S promoter to target the sap-sucking insects like aphids which impose large losses in cotton production. To select the transformants in selection medium and for glyphosate tolerance, GNA and cry1Ac genes were accompanied with cp4 epsps gene. Two binary vectors harboring desired genes were constructed and utilized in the study (pGTGNAoC1AC and pGTGN35C1AC). Transformation of cultivar GSN-12 was carried out by employing Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain EHA105. Plantlets were primarily screened under glyphosate (N-phosphonomethyl glycine) selection pressure and subsequently subjected to molecular and biotoxicity assays. Introduction of cry1Ac and GNA to cotton plant conferred resistance to Spodoptera littoralis and Aphis gossypii Glover. Restriction of cry1Ac toxin protein to insect biting sites along with a plant lectin attributes significantly to insect pest management strategies.

Limited variations in susceptibility to an insecticidal double-stranded RNA (dsvATPaseE) among a laboratory strain and seven genetically differentiated field populations of Tribolium castaneum

There has been a considerable growth in interest to use RNA interference (RNAi) as a novel insect pest management strategy in the past 10 years. However, there has been virtually no information on insect population variations in response to double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) molecules. The objective of this study was to generate baseline susceptibilities of the red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum) to an insecticidal dsRNA targeting vacuolar H+-ATPase subunit E gene (dsvATPaseE), and correlate the susceptibility data with sequence and expression variations of the target gene (vATPaseE), expression variations of the RNAi core genes, and overall genetic differences among a laboratory strain and seven geographical field populations of T. castaneum collected in China. Our results showed limited variations in the LD50 values of dsvATPaseE, which ranged from 0.10 to 0.29 ng/larva among the laboratory strain and the seven field populations. Considering the overlapping of the 95% confidence intervals of their LD50 values, there were no significant differences among the laboratory strain and field populations. We also found limited sequence polymorphisms and low frequencies of the polymorphisms of vATPaseE, and limited variations (<2-fold) of the endogenous expression of vATPaseE among the laboratory strain and field populations. However, we found considerable genetic variations among the individuals within each field population for most of eight loci and moderate to large genetic variations among the field populations. These results demonstrated that although the genetic variabilities were considerable among these field populations, the efficiency of RNAi targeting vATPaseE was highly consistent in T. castaneum. Our study provides work frames of resistance risk assessment for RNAi-based insect pest management programs.

Insecticidal activities of crude extact of Metarhizium anisopliae and conida suspension against Crocidolomia pavonana fabricius

Pest resistance, resurgent and the residual effect of conventional insecticides are the basis to apply Insect Pest Management (IPM) strategies. Metarhizium anisopliae is an entomophatogenic fungus that has considerable promise for usage in IPM. The spores of fungus had great potential as insect pathogen, in addition the mycotoxins products having current interest as bioactive agent. M. anisopliae was exhibited to control pest insect populations of crops especially host plant of Brassica oleracea (Cruciferae), i.e. Plutella xylostella, Spodoptera litura, and Crocidolomia pavonana. The insecticidal activities of conidia suspensions and crude extract product containing mycotoxins were investigated, withthe parametersmortality and lethal time of C. pavonana 3rd instar larvae. The experimental design of crude extract and conidia suspensions of M. anisopliae on mortality effect used Completely Randomized Design (RAL). The bioassay of conidia suspensions mortality test used 6 level spore concentrations (0, 105, 106, 107, 108, and 109 spores/ml). Analysis of variance (ANAVA) at α 95% followed by Duncan multiple test at α 5% was carried out. The result of crude extract mortality test showed that M. anisopliae produced mycotoxins from the third day of fungal growth. The long growth of fungus is directly proportional with the produced mycotoxins. The mycotoxins was optimally produced in 7th days. The extract M. anisopliae at highest mortality effect on larvae was tested for 24 to 120 h. One hundred percent mortality of larvae were achieved at 120 h with an average lethal time were 3.6 days shorter than mortality caused by conidia infections. Thus, conidia infections showed that M. anisopliae at 105 - 109 spores/ml concentrations led to mortalities of 75%, 90%, 80%, 85%, and 95 %, respectively (P<0.05). The larvae lethal time had no different in all concentration levels, but the shorter lethal time (4.66 days) was showed in the infected larvae with 109 spores/ml concentration.

Management of invasive insect species using optimal control theory

We discuss the use of optimal control theory to determine the most cost-effective management strategies for insect pests. We use a stage-structured linear population projection model where the modeled control action increases the mortality in one of the stage-classes. We illustrate the method by using a published model for the root weevil Diaprepes abbreviatus, an invasive insect species having a substantial negative impact on citrus trees in regions such as Florida and California in the United States. Here control corresponds to the application of inundative biological control agents (entomopathogenic nematodes as biopesticides) which increases the mortality of the larval stage. Our approach determines levels and timing of control to minimize the economic loss caused by D. abbreviatus. We use two numerical methods to approximate the optimal control, and compare their effectiveness.

Application of synchrotron radiation phase-contrast microtomography with iodine staining to Rhodnius prolixus head during ecdysis period

Synchrotron radiation phase-contrast microtomography (SR-PHC-CT) has become an important tool in studies of insects, mainly Rhodinius prolixus, the insect vector of Chagas disease. A previous work has shown that SR-PHC-CT is an excellent technique in studies about the ecdysis process of R.prolixus head. The term ecdysis refers to the set of behaviors by which an insect extracts itself from an old exoskeleton. The exoskeleton formation is indispensable for the evolutionary success of insect species, so failure to complete ecdysis will, in most cases result in death, making this process an excellent target in the search for new insect pest management strategies. Understanding the behavior of the ecdysis process is fundamental for the non-proliferation of Chagas disease. Despite it has been possible to identify the moulting process in the first work, main structures of the R.prolixus head could not be identified. In this work, it was developed a staining protocol which enabled the identification of these important structures using Iodine at SYRMEP beamline of ELETTRA. In the 3D images, it was possible to segment essential structures in the process of ecdysis. These structures have never been presented previously in the moulting period with SR-PHC-CT.

Factors Affecting Synonymous Codon Usage of Housekeeping Genes in drosophila Melanogaster

Housekeeping genes (HK genes) are required for cell survival and the maintenance of basic cellular functions. The investigation of factors affecting codon usage patterns in HK genes of insects can help in understanding the molecular evolution of insects and aid the development of insect pest management strategies. In this study, we employed bioinformatics approaches to analyze the codon usage bias (CUB) of HK genes in the insect model organism, Drosophila melanogaster. A comparison of CUB between 1107 HK genes and 1084 high tissue specifcity genes suggested that HK genes have higher CUB in D. melanogaster. In addition, we found that CUB inversely correlates with the non-synonymous substitution rate of HK genes. Therefore, we attempted to identify the factors that potentially infuence the codon usage pattern of HK genes. Our results suggest that mutation pressure and natural selection highly correlate with CUB in the HK genes of D. melanogaster and that two topological properties of HK proteins (proportion of protein interacting length and protein connectivity) also correlate with CUB in the HK genes of D. melanogaster. This study provides insight into CUB in the HK genes of D. melanogaster, and the results can support future investigations of potential applications in agricultural and biomedical feld.

The Attributes of Survival in the Formulation of Entomopathogenic Nematodes Utilised as Insect Biocontrol Agents

Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) of the genera Steinernema and Heterorhabditis and their associated symbiotic bacteria of the genera Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus, are efficient biological control agents, due to their ease of culture, their high fatality against key insect pests and their safety in use. However, their commercial utilisation is limited by their finite shelf life, both in storage and in formulations. Thus, efficient storage in the formulation of EPNs is essential so as to attain success in integrated insect pest management strategies. This paper reviews the latest information that is available on EPN storage, formulation, quality and application methods, coupled with improvement strategies for the effective control of insects. Nematode survival mechanisms investigated were heat and cold tolerance, desiccation, osmotic stress, hypoxia and energy reserves, among others, in storage, field or formulations. Their influence on the formulation of EPNs is also discussed.

Advance towards Host Mediated RNA Interference Insect Pest Management

Gene suppression via RNA interference (RNAi) provides an alternative strategy for insect pest management. Insect pests cost billions of dollars in the form of crop losses and insecticides, and farmers face an ever-present threat of insecticide resistance, fueling a continual search for alternative pest-control strategies. Of late, novel insect pest management strategies like transgenic plants expressing insecticidal crystal protein genes from the soil bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are effective in managing the insect pests that belong to Lepidoptera and Coleoptera. But success of the above technology is threatened by accelerated development of resistance, which is also true with chemical insecticides. Therefore, there is a need for identifying some additional effective pest management strategies, which could also augment integrated pest management (IPM). In this scenario, RNA interference (RNAi) offers a great deal of hope in successful mitigation of various insect pests. This review will feature late endeavors to comprehend the boundaries to RNA conveyance in headstrong insect species, depict late advances in the commercial development of insect -protected crops and biological insecticides using RNAi, and talk about this methodology with regards to an integrated pest management approach.

Regional analysis of bin aeration as an alternative to insecticidal control for post-harvest management of Sitophilus oryzae (L.) and Rhyzopertha dominica (F.)

The objectives of this study are to 1) develop an integrated aeration and insect pest modeling system and 2) determine the potential of aeration in controlling rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae (L.), and lesser grain borer, Rhyzopertha dominica (F.), as an alternative to the use of insecticides. Grain temperature, moisture, and pest population dynamics were simulated at each layer and radial position within a storage bin using a two-dimensional aeration model coupled with an age-structured distributed-maturation insect population model. The models were parameterized and validated using data from the literature and controlled experiments. Regional analysis across major U.S. rice states suggests adult populations of both species decrease progressively towards higher latitudes mainly due to lower fall and winter temperatures, with much lower populations for lesser grain borer than for rice weevil. Increasing the target temperature for storage bin aeration from 7.2°C to 15.6°C more than doubled the adult populations in the southern states, but the effect in the more northerly rice states was much less due to ambient air temperatures seldom reaching the target temperature. An increase in aeration airflow rate from 0.69 to 1.38m3/min/MT (metric ton) had a much greater impact in reducing adult populations than a decrease in the aeration target temperature. Weather variation between years within a county greatly impacted pest populations. Even in the southern states, predicted rice weevil populations under aeration exceeded 1000 adults/MT in less than half of the years. These results highlight the site-specific impact of aeration on S. oryzae and R. dominica and the need to develop cost-effective site-specific aeration and insect pest management strategies.

Biotechnological potential of insect fatty acid-modifying enzymes.

There are more than one million described insect species. This species richness is reflected in the diversity of insect metabolic processes. In particular, biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, such as defensive compounds and chemical signals, encompasses an extraordinarily wide range of chemicals that are generally unparalleled among natural products from other organisms. Insect genomes, transcriptomes and proteomes thus offer a valuable resource for discovery of novel enzymes with potential for biotechnological applications. Here, we focus on fatty acid (FA) metabolism-related enzymes, notably the fatty acyl desaturases and fatty acyl reductases involved in the biosynthesis of FA-derived pheromones. Research on insect pheromone-biosynthetic enzymes, which exhibit diverse enzymatic properties, has the potential to broaden the understanding of enzyme specificity determinants and contribute to engineering of enzymes with desired properties for biotechnological production of FA derivatives. Additionally, the application of such pheromone-biosynthetic enzymes represents an environmentally friendly and economic alternative to the chemical synthesis of pheromones that are used in insect pest management strategies.

Farmers’ knowledge, perceptions and practices in jute insect pest management and cultural strategy in the upper Gangetic plains of West Bengal, India

A survey on jute farmers’ knowledge, perceptions and practices (KPP) in pest management strategy was conducted during jute cultivation season of 2015 in the upper Gangetic plains of Uttar Dinajpur District, West Bengal, India. Detection and control of insect pests was largely based on damage symptoms of host plant. Damage caused by jute semilooper (Anomis sabulifera) was often mistakenly attributed to other leaf feeding caterpillars. Nearly all of the farmers applied insecticides (99%) without target specific use with an average 1.5 per season which may increase up to two to three spray per week. Pyrethroids were mostly accepted insecticide (67%), followed by organophosphates (33%) without knowing its toxic effect on environment. Farmers’ estimated yield loss due to insect pests was significantly correlated to estimated pest control cost. Due to pesticide sellers’ recommendations, farmer’s insecticidal ‘spray load’ significantly increased in every year, whereas the adopted number of insecticidal increased with advice following the guidance of extension staff and advertisement. Expenditure for pesticides was in concurrent with that of fertilizers. Only 10% of participating farmers knew about natural enemies, all of which were predators. Investigation is needed to evaluate whether significant savings can be obtained given a more judicious use of pesticides.

Determination of beginning of bulb enlargement time in shallot, Allium cepa var aggregatum for managing onion thrips (Thrips tabaci)

Although knowledge of bulbing time is important in developing effective insect pest management strategy and for predicting maturity time, such information has not yet been generated on shallots grown under field condition. Thus, this study was conducted for four consecutive years (2012–2015) at Debre Zeit, Ethiopia, to determine the onset of bulb enlargement time in shallot. Cultivars Minjar and Huruta were planted at the rate of 13 plants per m2 on ridged plots of 2×3.2m2. Each variety was replicated 12 times. From each plot five shoots were randomly selected and the number of onion thrips (Thrips tabaci) was counted in situ. Then the sample plants were carefully uprooted and neck diameter was measured using vernier digital caliper at the point where the leaf sheath turns to green color, while bulb diameter was measured approximately 1cm above the basal plate (root base). These sample plants were also used to determine bulb and shoot dry weight. In all the seasons and on both cultivars bulb enlargement began about 46–49days after sprouting, which is equivalent to 753–769° days. At this stage bulblets “push each other apart”. However, the number of days required to reach bulb ratio of ≥2.0 was variable between cultivars and across seasons. Thus, on Minjar bulb ratio became greater or equal to two 64 (981.75° days), 85 (1307.5° days), 74 (1128.5° days) and 81 (1285.15° days) days after sprouting in 2012, 2013, 2014 and 2015 seasons, respectively. The corresponding values for Huruta were 64 (981.75° days), 95 (1469.5° days), 89 (1312.0° days) and 81 (1285.15° days) days. Therefore, we suggest bulblet split time, which is the time at which the bulblets begin to “push each other apart,” as reliable indicator of onset of bulb formation in shallot rather than the arbitrary bulb ratio of 2.0. The intensity of onion thrips was very low throughout the growing season and across years. But, depending up on seasons, it tends to peak one to three weeks later than the onset of bulb enlargement. Peak onion thrips intensity was recorded when the bulb ratio reached 2.0 or when the bulb dry weight to shoot dry weight equals 1.5.

Variety mixtures of wheat influence aphid populations and attract an aphid predator

In crop fields, increasing plant species diversity can help manage insect pests, but using plant intraspecific diversity has received less attention as an insect pest management strategy. To explore the potential of crop genotypic diversity for managing insect pests, we used a wheat-aphid-lady beetle model system. We performed greenhouse and laboratory experiments comparing six monocultures and four-variety mixtures. We found that genotypic diversity did not strongly influence aphid populations at the stand level, but did stabilize populations. At the individual plant level, populations on certain varieties differed in mixtures from what would be expected based on populations on the variety in monocultures, including one that consistently hosted lower aphid populations when it was grown in mixtures. When we then tested five of the most promising mixtures, we found none decreased aphid populations compared to monocultures. Diversity of the surrounding neighborhood significantly influenced aphid populations on individual plants of certain varieties. Wheat mixtures did not overyield relative to monocultures, as other studies have found, but all measures of productivity were stabilized by mixtures. In behavioral experiments, aphids did not prefer mixtures or monocultures, but lady beetles were significantly attracted to mixtures. In the field, bottom-up effects on aphids and effects on natural enemies could create pest-management benefits. Based on the work we present here, increasing diversity per se may not improve aphid management aside from stabilizing populations; rather, specific types of mixtures that include influential varieties appear to be crucial for fostering beneficial interactions that can benefit insect pest management.

The Differential Effect of Low-Dose Mixtures of Four Pesticides on the Pea Aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum.

The modes of action of most insecticides are known, but little information exists regarding the toxicological interactions involving insecticide mixtures at low doses. The effects of mixtures of four insecticides were investigated using LC10 values (concentration leading to 10% mortality), acetamiprid (ACE, 0.235 µg/mL), chlorpyriphos (CHL, 107.0 µg/mL), deltamethrin (DEL, 5.831 µg/mL), and fipronil (FIP, 3.775 µg/mL) on the larvae of the pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum. After 24 h exposure, 6 of the 11 tested combinations, DEL/FIP, ACE/DEL, CHL/FIP, ACE/DEL/FIP, ACE/CHL/FIP, and ACE/DEL/CHL/FIP, were toxic through an additive effect. Four combinations, ACE/FIP, DEL/CHL, ACE/CHL, and ACE/DEL/CHL had a synergistic effect, whereas only one DEL/CHL/FIP showed an antagonistic effect. The toxic effect of these mixtures was confirmed after 48 h of exposure, revealing an enhanced toxicity of CHL, DEL, and FIP in combination with ACE. We suggest that an insect pest management strategy should be evaluated in the future using different combinations of insecticides.

Momordica charantia L. (Cucurbitaceae) floral volatiles causing attraction of Epilachna dodecastigma (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)

ABSTRACTEpilachna dodecastigma (Wied.) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) causes economic losses to bitter gourd, Momordica charantia L. (Cucurbitaceae) production in India and Bangladesh because adults feed on the leaves and flowers resulting death of the plant. This insect is currently controlled by insecticides, which are harmful to human health and environment. We studied the behavioral responses of E. dodecastigma females to floral volatiles and synthetic compounds comparable to floral volatiles in a Y-tube olfactometer to determine their potential for monitoring this pest. The gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and gas chromatography-flame ionization detector (GC-FID) analyses of M. charantia floral volatiles revealed the presence of 20 compounds. Myrcene was predominant followed by methyl jasmonate and 1-octadecanol in floral volatiles. Epilachna dodecastigma females were attracted to floral volatiles by a Y-tube olfactometer bioassay. Females were attracted to individual synthetic 1-heptanol, sabinene, myrcene and ocimene at 16, 1, 20, and 8 µg/25 mL methylene chloride in a dose response bioassay, respectively, and hence, these compounds might be used for insect pest management strategies such as baited traps.