Insect Diseases Research Articles

Thuringiensin: a toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis

Bacillus thuringiensis ( Bt ) is an entomopathogenic bacteria widely used in practice for biological control of insect pests, nematodes and disease vectors. Your toxicity is related to the ability to produce many virulence factors, including thuringiensins (β-exotoxins). Most toxins produce by this microorganism are highly specific, therefore the use of it in biological control is considered environmentally safe and so this bacteria is extensively used in the production of biological insecticides and genetically modified plants. However, the thuringiensin is considered toxic to almost all life forms, including humans, due to its ability to inhibit the biosynthesis of RNA polymerase, an enzyme essential to the transfer of genetic information in almost all organisms. This way, the release of new strains of Bt with insecticidal properties for the biological control of pests must pass by verification of the absence of production of exotoxin, so that non-target organisms are not affected and the use of Bt in this field remains safe. Thus, this revision will discussed the knowledge about features, structure, genetic determinants, biosynthesis, mechanism of action, insecticide spectrum, security assessment and procedures for identification of thuringiensin in Bt strains.

Performance of wheat crop in Punjab: A case study of Amritsar district

Inspite of diversification efforts made in Punjab as well as in the district Amritsar, trend in cropped area shows continue dominance of paddy wheat rotation. The study revealed that 87 per cent of the net cropped area was under wheat crop in district Amritsar. The average yield of different varieties during the study period observed from 34.1 to 52.3 q per ha. The record average wheat yield 49.5 q per ha was achieved in the district during 2011–12. PBW 343 (77.68 percent area and 44.2 q per ha yield in 2007–08) and HD 2967 (65.85 percent area and 50.3 q per ha yield in 2013–14) were predominantly adopted varieties in Amritsar district. At present there is increasing trend of adoption under HD 2967 which indicating that area under it may further increase in future. Therefore, PBW 621 for timely sown and PBW 590 for late sown conditions can be promoted to maintain a significant area under other recommended varieties. Some non recommended varieties grown in the district may have possibility of their susceptibility for insect pest and diseases therefore they can deteriorate the recommended varieties through prolong exposures. The average per hectare gross return and returns over variable cost for the wheat crop in district Amritsar on sample farms during 2007–08 were `47990 and `29934, respectively which increased to `80520 and `51055, respectively in 2013–14.

Olfactory disruption: toward controlling important insect vectors of disease.

Chemical repellents are used to decrease contacts between insect disease vectors and their hosts, thus reducing the probability of disease transmission. The molecular mechanisms by which repellents have their effects are poorly understood and remain a controversial topic. Here, we present recent results of studies aimed at a more thorough understanding of the mode of action of repellents and discuss the implications of these findings for future research and development of novel or improved repellents.

Sources of blood meals of sylvatic Triatoma guasayana near Zurima, Bolivia, assayed with qPCR and 12S cloning.

BackgroundIn this study we compared the utility of two molecular biology techniques, cloning of the mitochondrial 12S ribosomal RNA gene and hydrolysis probe-based qPCR, to identify blood meal sources of sylvatic Chagas disease insect vectors collected with live-bait mouse traps (also known as Noireau traps). Fourteen T. guasayana were collected from six georeferenced trap locations in the Andean highlands of the department of Chuquisaca, Bolivia.Methodology/Principal FindingsWe detected four blood meals sources with the cloning assay: seven samples were positive for human (Homo sapiens), five for chicken (Gallus gallus) and unicolored blackbird (Agelasticus cyanopus), and one for opossum (Monodelphis domestica). Using the qPCR assay we detected chicken (13 vectors), and human (14 vectors) blood meals as well as an additional blood meal source, Canis sp. (4 vectors).Conclusions/SignificanceWe show that cloning of 12S PCR products, which avoids bias associated with developing primers based on a priori knowledge, detected blood meal sources not previously considered and that species-specific qPCR is more sensitive. All samples identified as positive for a specific blood meal source by the cloning assay were also positive by qPCR. However, not all samples positive by qPCR were positive by cloning. We show the power of combining the cloning assay with the highly sensitive hydrolysis probe-based qPCR assay provides a more complete picture of blood meal sources for insect disease vectors.

Influence of Planting Methods and Density on Performance of Chia (Salvia hispanica) and its Suitability as an Oilseed Plant

A 2-year field experiment was conducted in 2012 and 2013 at the research fields of CSIR-Crops Research Institute to determine the best agronomic practices for the field establishment and cultivation of Chia (Salvia hispanica) and determine insect pests and diseases associated with the plant. The study also determined the nutritional composition of the plant under Ghanaian environment. A split-plot field trial with 2 planting methods (direct planting with seed; planting from seedling) as main plot and 3 planting density (10,000 plants/ha; 20,000 plantst/ha; 40,000 plantst/ha) as subplot were used for the agronomic evaluation of the plant. A sweep net was used to sweep diagonally across the field under two separate regimes to collect insects on the crop for the entomological investigations. Major insects collected were coreid bugs, lagria sp., Zonocerus variegatus and Diopsis thoracica. The method used for the pathological investigations were the moist blotter test and culture of pathogens on Potato Dextrose Agar. The results of the study in both years show high biomass and seed yield of chia when the crop was planted directly in the field. Narrow-row spacing of 0.5m x 0.5m consistently produced the highest biomass and seed yield in both years of the study. The results indicated that interaction between planting method and planting density positively influenced most of the growth and yield parameters of Chia plants. Nutritional profile analysis from the Chia seeds shows medium to high proximate and mineral composition. Disease evaluation revealed evidence of Fusarium wilt infection on Salvia hispanica in the field. The study recommends the adoption of direct planting method and narrow-row spacing (0.5m x 0.5m) (SP3) as the best option for the production of Chia plants in Ghana.

Tree diversity does not always improve resistance of forest ecosystems to drought.

Climate models predict an increase in the intensity and frequency of drought episodes in the Northern Hemisphere. Among terrestrial ecosystems, forests will be profoundly impacted by drier climatic conditions, with drastic consequences for the functions and services they supply. Simultaneously, biodiversity is known to support a wide range of forest ecosystem functions and services. However, whether biodiversity also improves the resistance of these ecosystems to drought remains unclear. We compared soil drought exposure levels in a total of 160 forest stands within five major forest types across Europe along a gradient of tree species diversity. We assessed soil drought exposure in each forest stand by calculating the stand-level increase in carbon isotope composition of late wood from a wet to a dry year (Δδ(13)CS). Δδ(13)CS exhibited a negative linear relationship with tree species diversity in two forest types, suggesting that species interactions in these forests diminished the drought exposure of the ecosystem. However, the other three forest types were unaffected by tree species diversity. We conclude that higher diversity enhances resistance to drought events only in drought-prone environments. Managing forest ecosystems for high tree species diversity does not necessarily assure improved adaptability to the more severe and frequent drought events predicted for the future.

Reusing Plastic Mulch for a Second Strawberry Crop: Effects on Arthropod Pests, Weeds, Diseases and Strawberry Yields

Florida is the second largest producer of fresh-market strawberries (Fragaria × ananassa Duchesne; Rosales: Rosaceae) in the United States. The annual hill “plasticulture” production system used to grow strawberries makes this crop one of the most expensive to produce. The cost of production may be reduced if synthetic mulch can be reused and the dead plants (thatch) from the previous season left in the field, without negatively affecting crop yields. Field studies were conducted during the 2010/2011 and 2011/2012 strawberry growing seasons to evaluate the effect of re-using plastic mulch with or without dead strawberry plants from the previous season on arthropod populations, disease incidence, weeds and strawberry growth, and marketable yields of strawberries. The study was conducted in a commercial field in Citrus County, Florida using 2-yr old synthetic mulch on the bed. Two strawberry varieties ‘Albion’ and ‘Florida Festival’ were planted in 2010/2011 and 2011/2012 growing seasons, respectively. During transplanting, one treatment had all strawberry thatch (dead plant debris from previous season) removed from the soil before planting the new strawberry transplants, while in the second treatment the thatch was left to grow with the transplants. Data were collected throughout the growing seasons on plant growth, spider mites and insect pest populations, weeds, disease incidence, and marketable yield of strawberries. Re-using plastic mulch with or without strawberry thatch had no significant effect on plant size or populations of beneficial and pestiferous arthropods. However, re-using mulch with strawberry thatch reduced weed growth but increased the incidence of fungal diseases. As a result of fungal diseases and plant mortality, marketable yield for the variety “Florida Festival”, but not “Albion” was significantly lower in plots with the strawberry thatch than in those without thatch.

Bark harvesting systems of Drimys brasiliensis Miers in the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest.

Drimys brasiliensis Miers, locally known as cataia or casca-de-anta, is a native tree species of the Atlantic Rainforest. Its bark is harvested from natural populations. This study examined the recovery capacity of the bark of D. brasiliensis under different bark harvesting methods, as well as the influence of these approaches on its population dynamics and reproductive biology. While none of these treatments resulted in changes in phenological behavior or the rate of increase of diameter at breast height and tree height, the removal of wider bark strips resulted in lower rates of bark recovery and higher rates of insect attack and diseases. Accordingly, the results recommend using strips of bark 2 cm wide and 2 m long, with 4 cm between strips, for effective rates of bark regrowth and for lower susceptibility to insect attack and diseases. From these studies, we concluded that D. brasiliensis has a high potential for sustainable management of its natural populations, demonstrating the possibility of generating an important supplementary income for farmers and contributing to the use and conservation of the Atlantic Rainforest.

Effects of industrial wastewater reuse for crop production: A case study in Tejgaon metropolitan area of Dhaka, Bangladesh

This study was carried out to identify the benefits, adverse effects, social acceptance and a long term impacts of industrial wastewater reuse in the Tejgaon metropolitan area of Dhaka city. Questionnaire surveys were conducted in the exposed and control sites to collect data on the farmers’ perception and responses regarding agricultural, economic, social and environmental health issues. The most important benefits of wastewater reuse have been found as the availability of wastewater over all seasons and economic return from reduced chemical fertilizer requirement in vegetable field. The potential risks of wastewater reuse have been found as the increased insect attacks, diseases and excessive weed problem. Farmer mentioned that long term exposure of this water stimulates crop growth rapidly but it reduces grain production dramatically. Sometimes excess wastewater used for irrigation or short-term water logging in the area eventually leads to crop damage. Interviews with the key factors indicate that a long term institutional arrangement for sustainable reuse of wastewater is not beneficial in the region. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/jbau.v11i2.19860 J. Bangladesh Agril. Univ. 11(2): 183-188, 2013

Survival relative to new and ancestral host plants, phytoplasma infection, and genetic constitution in host races of a polyphagous insect disease vector

Dissemination of vectorborne diseases depends strongly on the vector's host range and the pathogen's reservoir range. Because vectors interact with pathogens, the direction and strength of a vector's host shift is vital for understanding epidemiology and is embedded in the framework of ecological specialization. This study investigates survival in host-race evolution of a polyphagous insect disease vector, Hyalesthes obsoletus, whether survival is related to the direction of the host shift (from field bindweed to stinging nettle), the interaction with plant-specific strains of obligate vectored pathogens/symbionts (stolbur phytoplasma), and whether survival is related to genetic differentiation between the host races. We used a twice repeated, identical nested experimental design to study survival of the vector on alternative hosts and relative to infection status. Survival was tested with Kaplan–Meier analyses, while genetic differentiation between vector populations was quantified with microsatellite allele frequencies. We found significant direct effects of host plant (reduced survival on wrong hosts) and sex (males survive longer than females) in both host races and relative effects of host (nettle animals more affected than bindweed animals) and sex (males more affected than females). Survival of bindweed animals was significantly higher on symptomatic than nonsymptomatic field bindweed, but in the second experiment only. Infection potentially had a positive effect on survival in nettle animals but due to low infection rates the results remain suggestive. Genetic differentiation was not related to survival. Greater negative plant-transfer effect but no negative effect of stolbur in the derived host race suggests preadaptation to the new pathogen/symbiont strain before strong diversifying selection during the specialization process. Physiological maladaptation or failure to accept the ancestral plant will have similar consequences, namely positive assortative mating within host races and a reduction in the likelihood of oviposition on the alternative plant and thus the acquisition of alternative stolbur strains.

Insights into brain development and disease from neurogenetic analyses in Drosophila melanogaster.

Groundbreaking work by Obaid Siddiqi has contributed to the powerful genetic toolkit that is now available for studying the nervous system of Drosophila. Studies carried out in this powerful neurogenetic model system during the last decade now provide insight into the molecular mechanisms that operate in neural stem cells during normal brain development and during abnormal brain tumorigenesis. These studies also provide strong support for the notion that conserved molecular genetic programs act in brain development and disease in insects and mammals including humans.

An inhibitor of Na+/Ca2+ exchange blocks activation of insect olfactory receptors

Earlier we showed that the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger inhibitor, KB-R7943, potently blocks the odor-evoked activity of lobster olfactory receptor neurons. Here we extend that finding to recombinant mosquito olfactory receptors stably expressed in HEK cells. Using whole-cell and outside-out patch clamping and calcium imaging, we demonstrate that KB-R7943 blocks both the odorant-gated current and the odorant-evoked calcium signal from two different OR complexes from the malaria vector mosquito, Anopheles gambiae, AgOr48+AgOrco and AgOr65+AgOrco. Both heteromeric and homomeric (Orco alone) OR complexes were susceptible to KB-R7943 blockade when activated by VUAA1, an agonist that targets the Orco channel subunit, suggesting the Orco subunit may be the target of the drug’s action. KB-R7943 represents a valuable tool to further investigate the functional properties of arthropod olfactory receptors and raises the interesting specter that activation of these ionotropic receptors is directly or indirectly linked to a Na+/Ca2+ exchanger, thereby providing a template for drug design potentially allowing improved control of insect pests and disease vectors.

Assessment of tree mortality on the Estonian Network of Forest Research Plots/ Puude väljalangevuse hindamine metsa kasvukäigu püsiproovitükkidel

Abstract Assessment of tree mortality provides deeper understanding of forest structure and functioning. This enables evaluation of stand sustainability and provides information on stand productivity, diversity and health condition. Tree mortality can be assessed by spatiotemporal patterns as well as by studying the processes and causes of mortality. Tree mortality is caused by specific disturbance agents or by the complex effect of various disturbances. The purpose of this study is to examine tree mortality in Estonian forests, determine the causes of tree death, and estimate how different management regimes affect tree mortality and its causes. This study is based on 360 sample plots measured in 2003-2005 and re-measured in 2008-2010. The sample plots were divided into recently managed (RM, 146 plots) and low intensity/unmanaged (LU, 214 plots) plots based on forest management regime. In total, 53,990 trees were measured, of which 20,020 were located on RM and 33,970 on LU plots. The tree mortality for 5-year period was 3.4% on RM plots and 8.0% on LU plots. The main cause of tree mortality in RM stands was insect damage, which attributes to 29.8% of tree mortality, whereas in LU stands the main cause was tree competition, which attributes to 45.4% of tree mortality. The analysis of tree mortality indicated that an increase in relative tree diameter in both stand types contributes to an increase in mortality due to insect, wind or fungal damage and diseases. Opposite results were received with respect to competition - the smaller the tree relative diameter, the more probable it is that a tree will die because of competition with neighbouring trees. The analysis of game damage and other causes of tree mortality showed that these were not dependent on the relative diameter of trees. The analysis of the overall probability of tree mortality revealed that relatively smaller trees have a higher probability of mortality than larger trees.

Modeling disease vector occurrence when detection is imperfect II: Drivers of site-occupancy by synanthropic Triatoma brasiliensis in the Brazilian northeast.

BackgroundUnderstanding the drivers of habitat selection by insect disease vectors is instrumental to the design and operation of rational control-surveillance systems. One pervasive yet often overlooked drawback of vector studies is that detection failures result in some sites being misclassified as uninfested; naïve infestation indices are therefore biased, and this can confound our view of vector habitat preferences. Here, we present an initial attempt at applying methods that explicitly account for imperfect detection to investigate the ecology of Chagas disease vectors in man-made environments.MethodologyWe combined triplicate-sampling of individual ecotopes (n = 203) and site-occupancy models (SOMs) to test a suite of pre-specified hypotheses about habitat selection by Triatoma brasiliensis. SOM results were compared with those of standard generalized linear models (GLMs) that assume perfect detection even with single bug-searches.Principal Findings Triatoma brasiliensis was strongly associated with key hosts (native rodents, goats/sheep and, to a lesser extent, fowl) in peridomestic environments; ecotope structure had, in comparison, small to negligible effects, although wooden ecotopes were slightly preferred. We found evidence of dwelling-level aggregation of infestation foci; when there was one such focus, same-dwelling ecotopes, whether houses or peridomestic structures, were more likely to become infested too. GLMs yielded negatively-biased covariate effect estimates and standard errors; both were, on average, about four times smaller than those derived from SOMs.Conclusions/SignificanceOur results confirm substantial population-level ecological heterogeneity in T. brasiliensis. They also suggest that, at least in some sites, control of this species may benefit from peridomestic rodent control and changes in goat/sheep husbandry practices. Finally, our comparative analyses highlight the importance of accounting for the various sources of uncertainty inherent to vector studies, including imperfect detection. We anticipate that future research on infectious disease ecology will increasingly rely on approaches akin to those described here.

Microsatellite and Wolbachia analysis in Rhagoletis cerasi natural populations: population structuring and multiple infections.

Rhagoletis cerasi (Diptera: Tephritidae) is a major pest of sweet and sour cherries in Europe and parts of Asia. Despite its economic significance, there is a lack of studies on the genetic structure of R. cerasi populations. Elucidating the genetic structure of insects of economic importance is crucial for developing phenological-predictive models and environmental friendly control methods. All natural populations of R. cerasi have been found to harbor the endosymbiont Wolbachia pipientis, which widely affects multiple biological traits contributing to the evolution of its hosts, and has been suggested as a tool for the biological control of insect pests and disease vectors. In the current study, the analysis of 18 R. cerasi populations collected in Greece, Germany, and Russia using 13 microsatellite markers revealed structuring of R. cerasi natural populations, even at close geographic range. We also analyzed the Wolbachia infection status of these populations using 16S rRNA-, MLST- and wsp-based approaches. All 244 individuals screened were positive for Wolbachia. Our results suggest the fixation of the wCer1 strain in Greece while wCer2, wCer4, wCer5, and probably other uncharacterized strains were also detected in multiply infected individuals. The role of Wolbachia and its potential extended phenotypes needs a thorough investigation in R. cerasi. Our data suggest an involvement of this symbiont in the observed restriction in the gene flow in addition to a number of different ecological factors.

Reasons Analysis of Chinese Urban Consumers Opposing Genetically Modified Food—An Empirical Analysis based on a Metropolitan Representative

Since genetically modified food appeared in Chinese market, it has become a big dispute. Scientific experiments has proved that genetically modified food possesses many advantages such as insect resistance, herbicide tolerance and disease resistance. However it is a fact that many Chinese consumers prefer conventional food to genetically modified food when they go to supermarket. Through collecting and analysis of the information, the reasons were attributed to four aspects. Firstly, transgenic technology itself existed high risk. Secondly, human health may be threatened by them because of the uncertainty. Thirdly, perhaps genetically modified food may bring environment hazards. Finally, some companies which researched genetically modified food in order to ensure a big profit return regardless of corporate social responsibility.

기후변화가 벼 병해충 피해면적 발생에 미치는 영향분석

BACKGROUND: It is known that impacts of climate change on damage occurrence by insect pests and diseases are increasing. The negative effects of climate change on production will threaten our food security. It is needed that on the basis of analysis of the impacts, proper strategies in response to climate change are developed. METHODS AND RESULTS: The objective of this paper is to estimate impacts of climate change on rice damage occurrence by insect pests and diseases, using the panal model which analyzes both cross-section data and time series data. The result of an analysis on impacts of climate change on rice damage occurrence by pest insect and disease showed that the damage occurrence by Rice leaf roller and Rice water weevil increased if temperature increased, and damage occurrence by Stripe, Sheath blight, and Leaf Blast increased if precipitation(or amount of sunshine) increased(or decreased). CONCLUSION: Adaptation strategies, supplying weather forecasting information by region, developing systematical strategies for prevention of damage occurrence by pest insect and disease, analyzing the factors of damage occurrence by unexpected pest insect and disease, enforcing international cooperation for prevention of damage occurrence are needed to minimize the impacts of damage occurrence on rice production.

Oak tree canker disease supports arthropod diversity in a natural ecosystem.

Microorganisms have many roles in nature. They may act as decomposers that obtain nutrients from dead materials, while some are pathogens that cause diseases in animals, insects, and plants. Some are symbionts that enhance plant growth, such as arbuscular mycorrhizae and nitrogen fixation bacteria. However, roles of plant pathogens and diseases in natural ecosystems are still poorly understood. Thus, the current study addressed this deficiency by investigating possible roles of plant diseases in natural ecosystems, particularly, their positive effects on arthropod diversity. In this study, the model system was the oak tree (Quercus spp.) and the canker disease caused by Annulohypoxylon truncatum, and its effects on arthropod diversity. The oak tree site contained 44 oak trees; 31 had canker disease symptoms while 13 were disease-free. A total of 370 individual arthropods were detected at the site during the survey period. The arthropods belonged to 25 species, 17 families, and seven orders. Interestingly, the cankered trees had significantly higher biodiversity and richness compared with the canker-free trees. This study clearly demonstrated that arthropod diversity was supported by the oak tree canker disease.

SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT OF 'KLUAI KHAI' FOR EXPORTING IN THAILAND

Supply chain management is very important to improve quality of fruits. The study was conducted in Chanthaburi Province (5 districts, viz., Makham, Pong Nam Ron, Tha Mai, Khao Khitchakut and Klung) and Sukhothai Province (2 districts, viz., Sawankhalok and Thung Saliam) from October 2009 to May 2010 through structured interview of farmers, collectors, and exporters. In Chanthaburi, it was found that ‘Kluai Khai’ banana was grown as intercrop in fruit orchards. Plant density was approximately 937-1,562 plants/ha, depending on the spacing of the main fruit crop. Average yield was 1 ton per rai (1 rai=0.16 ha). Two to three suckers were usually allowed to grow per mother plant. Fruit bunches were harvested when fruit angularity was 3/4 light full and sold to the collectors. The produce was sorted into two grades, standard grade and under-standard grade or off-grade. About 60-70% of the total production met the standard grade while the rest was off-grade due to insect and disease damage and/or under fruit size. Fruit hands that met the standard grade were subjected to postharvest operation conducted by the collectors who graded them into three sizes; AAA, AA and A, before packing into cardboard boxes and loaded onto a refrigerated truck at 13-14°C. This operation usually took 8-12 hours. Price of off-grade fruits was 8-10 times lower than that of standard-grade fruits. In Sukhothai, the banana had been grown as main crop at the density of 2,500 plants/ha. Only one sucker was allowed to grow successively after flower emergence of the mother plant. Postharvest handling operation was done at the farmers’ orchard by the exporters. Fruit hands with insect pest, disease damage and small sized or undeveloped fingers, usually about 5-10 and 10-20% of total production, respectively, were sorted out and sold in local markets. Fruit hands that met the standard (60-70%) were graded into three sizes. Most exporters (74%) took 14-24 hours to complete the operation while the rest (26%) took 6-10 hours. Average yield was 0.36 t/ha and the production cost was around 66.6 US$/ha.

Bagging Tomato Fruits: A Viable and Economical Method of Preventing Diseases and Insect Damage in Organic Production

Tomato borers, especially Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), a pest introduced in southern Europe, northern Africa and the Middle East, and diseases can damage tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) fruit. This study tested the economic and technical feasibility of bagging tomato fruits clusters during organic production to protect them against insects and diseases. The experiment was randomized complete block (5 blocks) and 5 treatments: bagging with organza fabric, tissue non-tissue (TNT) covering, a micro-perforated plastic, brown paper bags and no bagging (control). Four clusters were bagged/ plant at flowering, and evaluated for flower abortion, the total number of fruits set and the number of fruits damaged by insects or diseases during the sampling period. At harvest we evaluated fresh weight, size and color of the fruits and we determined their Brix degrees postharvest. Bagging of fruit with either organza fabric or TNT reduced insect borer damage by 99.7% and disease damage by 84.7%. Bagging fruit did not affect flower abortion, skin color and fruit fresh weight (average of 91.87g), but bagging either with organza or TNT delayed the harvest period by 3 days. About 350% more large fruits were produced either with TNT or organza fabric bags than in the non-bagged control. This difference represents about 30 tonnes/ha, which at an average price for organic tomatoes of US $5.15/kg, resulted in a net return of US $113,161/ha. Bagging of tomato fruit clusters with TNT or organza fabric may be an excellent option to reduce damage by insect borers and diseases for a significant economic gain. Additionally, these 2 bagging materials did not negatively affect the major qualitative and quantitative characteristics of tomato fruit.