Entomophagy Research Articles

Insect-Based Food: A (Free) Choice

The literature highlights the importance of insect consumption for nutritional health habits. The increasingly clear legislation, the developed studies demonstrating their nutritional value, and the prospect of overcoming some barriers that have prevented consumers from consuming insects are among the reasons supporting the advantages of consuming insects. The leading determinants of consumption are culture and individual and social beliefs, accessibility to a particular nutritional resource, and individual behavior. The barriers to neophobia were analyzed by evaluating factors of influence and their respective relationship and meaning through quantitative research to measure the significance of the results. To develop a conceptual model that aims to change eating behavior and recognize structural aspects that can be barriers in the process of changing eating behavior, a methodological framework was developed. The methodological framework aimed to identify the characteristics that can be associated with the profile of opinion leaders, and it included a questionnaire which was applied to 213 young people. Moreover, the structural equation model was the statistical technique used. Given the projected population growth and increasing life expectancy, nutrition is a challenge in terms of health, but also in economic, social, and environmental respects. Aiming for sustainability, it is crucial to identify nutritional alternatives within the circular economy.

Insects in Pet Food Industry-Hope or Threat?

Simple SummaryToday, more and more is being said about issues related to resource depletion. This also applies to the raw materials necessary for food production. At the same time, the awareness of dog caregivers regarding their proper nutrition is increasing, and a balanced pet food should not only be nutritiously valuable but also in some cases hypoallergenic. These two considerations are the reason why food for dogs containing insects is becoming increasingly popular. Moreover, insects are nothing new in the diet of animals at all—they are a part of the diet in their natural environment.Due to the increasing global population, the world cannot currently support the well-known techniques of food production due to their harmful effects on land use, water consumption, and greenhouse gas emissions. The key answer is a solution based on the use of edible insects. They have always been present in the diet of animals. They are characterized by a very good nutritional value (e.g., high protein content and contents of essential amino acids and fatty acids, including lauric acid), and products with them receive positive results in palatability tests. Despite the existing literature data on the benefits of the use of insects as a protein source, their acceptance by consumers and animal caregivers remains problematic. In spite of the many advantages of using insects in pet food, it is necessary to analyze the risk of adverse food reactions, including allergic reactions that may be caused by insect consumption. Other hazards relate to the contamination of insects. For example, they can be contaminated with anthropogenic factors during breeding, packaging, cooking, or feeding. These contaminants include the presence of bacteria, mold fungi, mycotoxins, and heavy metals. However, insects can be used in the pet food industry. This is supported by the evolutionary adaptation of their wild ancestors to the eating of insects in the natural environment. The chemical composition of insects also corresponds to the nutritional requirements of dogs. It should be borne in mind that diets containing insect and their effects on animals require careful analysis. The aim of this article is to discuss the nutritional value of insects and their possible applications in the nutrition of companion animals, especially dogs.

Insects as food and feed in Portugal and Norway – Cross-cultural comparison of determinants of acceptance

Entomophagy – intentional consumption of insects – is practiced in several regions of the world, particularly in Asia, Africa and Latin America. In the Western world, edible insects have been growing in popularity as novel food and feed. The main objective of this cross-cultural study, performed in Portugal and Norway, was to evaluate the determinants of consumers’ acceptance of insects as food and feed. An online-based survey (n = 666, LimeSurvey -Portugal- and EyeQuestion -Norway-) composed of nine different sections, assessing acceptance of insects as food and feed, sociodemographic characteristics, attitudes towards edible insects and food choice motives was applied. Results showed that Norwegian consumers had a higher acceptance of insects as food or feed than Portuguese consumers did. It was also possible to divide consumers into four segments according to their acceptance level: Disgusted, Rejecters, Feed Acceptors and Acceptors. Considering the determinants of acceptance/rejection, disgust towards insects was the variable with the largest negative impact on either forms of entomophagy for both countries. On the other hand, consumers who seek new food experiences tend to have a higher acceptance of insects as food. Sociodemographic characteristics also influenced the acceptance of insects as food and feed, although differently for Norway and Portugal, while food choice motivations (convenience, health and ecological welfare) had minimal impact. These results highlight the importance of diminishing disgust reactions towards edible insects and to successfully marketing entomophagy to more neophilic consumers. This can be potentially obtained by improving the sensory appeal and experiences associated with edible insects.

Making a meal out of bugs

Making a meal out of bugs

From the President and IFST News

From the President and <scp>IFST</scp> News

Development of sustainable business models for insect-fed poultry production: opportunities and risks

During the last decade the potential of insects for human nutritional protein is increasingly recognised. Direct consumption of insects contributes to a reduction of the ecological footprint of human food production and is claimed to have health benefits. An alternative is feeding poultry (broilers and layers) with insect-derived protein. This offers several additional advantages, e.g. a more extensive use of (new sources) of organic by-products of food industry for insect production. Implementation of a People-Planet-Profit (PPP) sustainable way of utilising these opportunities requires the development of sustainable business models. Such business models need to be based on the opportunities of insect-derived protein in feeding poultry but should also include the risks associated with insect-derived protein for feeding poultry. This article explores the insect-fed poultry production value chain through an interdisciplinary approach. First, the essential features of this value chain are described. Then, an inventory and classification is made of the main opportunities and risks of this value chain. Finally, the opportunity-risk trade-offs are discussed, as well as their implications for developing sustainable business models. We conclude that for PPP-sustainable business models, management of the asymmetric trade-offs between opportunities and risks related to possible contamination of organic by-products used as substrate for insect production should receive prime attention. Implications for organising the value chain are discussed.

Understanding the perception of edible insects

PurposeEdible insects are increasingly recognized as great food resources of the future. Entomophagy, the practice of eating insects, has a predicted market by 2030 of nearly $8 billion. But this market could grow even more with the acceptance of insects as food by Western consumers, as an alternative to conventional protein sources. In this context, the authors aim to collect and analyze information about consumers' perception of insects as food in Brazil, through the word association task.Design/methodology/approachIn total, 751 participants agreed to complete the word association task in relation to entomophagy through an online questionnaire. They had to write down the first five words or terms that came to their minds when they thought of eating insects.FindingsIndividual mentions were categorized according to their similarities and/or proximity. Based on this grouping the authors identified six dimensions, with emphasis on “hedonic attitudes and feelings”, “cultural aspects” and “exotic”. The study concludes that Brazilians see insect consumption as belonging to another culture, not Western.Originality/valueFew studies have explored the association of words in relation to entomophagy, especially in Brazil. This article aims to fill this gap, using this methodology applied to the Brazilian public.

Bee brood as traditional human food on Andros Island, Greece

Entomophagy, the consumption of insects by humans, is a traditional practice in many countries around the world. In the northern part of Andros Island in Greece, a significant number of the inhabitants used to include bee brood in their diet. In this scientific note, results are presented from conducted interviews of field research during 2020 and 2021. The consumption varied greatly regarding the way bee brood was prepared (raw to well-cooked) and was abandoned ca. 60 years ago.

Edible Insect Farming in the Context of the EU Regulations and Marketing-An Overview.

Simple SummaryInsects have been identified as an alternative in the development of food systems and as a response to the growing demand for protein in the world. Edible insects have been recognized as an important innovation in the food sector. In the past, insects have been consumed in many cultures, and they are presently being introduced to Europe as a novel food and livestock. This article comprehensively reviews the use of edible insects in relation to their breeding, production technology, legal and socio-economic aspects. The role of food safety and legislation in implementing insects as food and feed is discussed. Moreover, the article introduces the breeding of edible insects as a developing and future-oriented business sector. In conclusion, the consumption of insects by humans and animals can significantly contribute to better diversification and security of the global food chain. The low acceptance of insect-based foods, in particular in Western societies, is an important problem that has been identified in this article. Consumer acceptance of insects as a rich source of nutrients is required for the further development of the sector. Consumer education and appropriate marketing strategies are required to promote the growth of the edible insect industry.Insects are increasingly being considered as an attractive source of protein that can cater to the growing demand for food around the world and promote the development of sustainable food systems. Commercial insect farms have been established in various countries, mainly in Asia, but in Europe, edible insects have not yet emerged as a viable alternative to traditional plant- and animal-based sources of protein. In this paper, we present an interdisciplinary overview of the technological aspects of edible insect farming in the context of the EU regulations and marketing. Based on a review of the literature, we have concluded that edible insect farming can be a viable business sector that significantly contributes to the overall sustainability of food systems if the appropriate regulations are introduced and food safety standards are guaranteed. However, the success of the edible insect industry also requires consumer acceptance of entomophagy, which is rather low in Western societies. Therefore, targeted marketing strategies are indispensable to support the implementation of edible insect programs.

Sericulture and the edible-insect industry can help humanity survive: insects are more than just bugs, food, or feed.

The most serious threat which humans face is rapid global climate change, as the Earth shifts rapidly into a regime less hospitable to humans. To address the crisis caused by severe global climate change, it will be necessary to modify humankind's way of life. Because livestock production accounts for more than 14.5% of all greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, it is critical to reduce the dependence of humans on protein nutrients and calories obtained from livestock. One way to do so is to use insects as food. Compared with typical livestock, farming edible insects (or "mini-livestock") produce fewer GHG emissions, require less space and water, involve shorter life cycles, and have higher feed conversion rates. It has been recently reported that consumption of certain insects can prevent or treat human diseases. This review goes beyond entomophagy to entomotherapy and their application to the food industry.

Novel foods as red meat replacers – an insight using Risk Benefit Assessment methods (the NovRBA project)

The project entitled “Novel foods as red meat replacers – an insight using Risk Benefit Assessment methods (NovRBA)” aimed to develop and test harmonised Risk Benefit Assessment (RBA) methods to estimate the overall health impact of replacing red meat with an edible insect species (a novel food). Based on an appraisal of insect products that are more likely to be consumed in Europe, project participants decided to compare the consumption of a beef patty consisting of 100% minced beef meat (reference scenario) with a patty in which beef meat would be fully replaced by an edible insect dough (alternative scenario). The target population was adults. The RBA steps included the problem definition, the identification, prioritization and selection of components together with associated health outcomes. The assessment included the selection of dose-response relationships based on their internal validity (hazard characterisation) and an exposure assessment of nutrient intake and exposures to microbiological hazards and compounds of toxicological concern associated with the reference and alternative scenarios. All health outcomes were quantified according to the disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) composite metric. The project standardised the pivotal step of selecting model components through developing a tiered approach to prioritise components establishing the “long”, the “short” and the “final” list. The final list comprised thirteen nutrients, two heat-resistant spore-forming bacteria and inorganic arsenic. The RBA model was developed using @Risk® add-in software using Monte Carlo simulations considering variability and/or uncertainty. Overall the expected change in DALYs when moving from the reference scenario to the alternative one was estimated to be around 8,753 DALYs (per 100,000 population) saved in Greece, 6,572 DALYs in Denmark and 21,972 DALYs in France. This is mainly due to the overall beneficial nutritional and microbiological impacts. The proposed actions to communicate the project’s findings can be summarised in providing understandable scientific evidence to policy makers; creating opportunities for consumers to engage in-depth with information about insect consumption; making use of multipliers who enjoy a high level of trust and establishing informational exchange with trusted sources.

Application of Edible Insects as Novel Protein Sources and Strategies for Improving Their Processing.

Insects have long been consumed by humans as a supplemental protein source, and interest in entomophagy has rapidly increased in recent years as a potential sustainable resource in the face of environmental challenges and global food shortages. However, food neophobia inhibits the widespread consumption of edible insects, despite their high nutritional and functional value. The own characteristics of edible insect protein such as foaming properties, emulsifying properties, gelling properties and essential amino acid ratio can be improved by drying, defatting, and extraction. Although nutritional value of some protein-enriched bread, pasta, and meat products, especially essential amino acid components was increased, replacement of conventional food with edible insects as a novel food source has been hindered owing to the poor cross-linking properties of edible insect protein. This deterioration in physicochemical properties may further limit the applicability of edible insects as food. Therefore, strategies must be developed to improve the quality of edible insect enriched food with physical, chemical, and biological methods. It was presented that an overview of the recent advancements in these approaches and highlight the challenges and prospects for this field. Applying these strategies to develop insect food in a more familiar form can help to make insect-enriched foods more appealing to consumers, facilitating their widespread consumption as a sustainable and nutritious protein source.

Edible insects – history, characteristics, benefits, risks and future prospects for use

The growing global food crisis and the changing climatic and agro-ecological conditions on the planet are predominant, serious, and growing issues that require Global attention. Insecurity caused by the lack of food can have devastating effects on health, with malnutrition being considered a major cause of infant mortality. In addition, malnutrition at an early age has been linked to problems later, including hypertension, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases. Insecurity caused by the lack of food contributes to lowering immune function and altering the intestinal microbiome. By 2030, the annual economic cost of mortality and noncommunicable illnesses is anticipated to exceed $1.3 trillion. Edible insects are employed in gastronomy and the food industry in many Asian, Oceanian, African, and Latin American countries. Due to cultural preconceptions and disinformation regarding its detrimental characteristics and effects on the human body, Western societies perceive it as animal feed rather than human food. Academic, industrial, and government forces are constantly trying to reduce negative insect perceptions by raising public awareness of the need to find alternative food sources, developing new insect processing methods, and highlighting the health benefits of insect consumption. Insect consumption, also known as entomophagy, has been reported for a long time. It is estimated that roughly 2 billion individuals ingest insects regularly worldwide. There are about 2,000 edible bug species in the literature, the majority of which come from tropical nations. The most regularly ingested insects are beetles, bees, wasps, ants, caterpillars, grasshoppers, crickets, cicadas, termites, dragonflies, and flies. This review covers current insect trends as a prospective food source (alternative food source), describes the benefits and risks associated with their ingestion, and highlights the numerous areas where they could be used.

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Five locally available seasonal delicacies in Malawi were analysed for their nutrient content. The five delicacies included three insect types, one bird and a plant tuber. The proximate analysis using standard methods of analysis showed that Nomadacris septemdasciata (insect) has the highest protein content (69.78&plusmn;2.0%) followed very closely by Passer difusus (bird) (67.59&plusmn;1.2%). The protein content of the Nomadacris septemdasciata and Passer difusus is significantly differently from the rest of the food items. In the case of fat content, the results showed that Carebara vidua (insect) has significantly the highest amount (33.38&plusmn;0.3%). The mineral analysis indicated that Passer difusus (bird) (516.68 &plusmn;8.6 mg/100 g) has significantly the highest amount of phosphorus followed by that of Homorocoryphus vicinus (insect) (359.53 &plusmn;6.2 mg/100 g). For Iron, Satyrium buchanii (plant) has significantly the highest content (37.31&plusmn;1.4 mg/100 g). These results showed that consumption of the seasonal edible insects, birds and plants can provide the much-needed nutrients for proper growth throughout the year. &nbsp; Key words: Nutrient, seasonal delicacy, edible insects, diet, food insecurity.

FOOD USAGE OF MACROTERMES (ISOPTERA, TERMITIDAE) ALATES IN LOME (SOUTHERN TOGO)

The consumption of insect including termites is gaining more interest nowadays even though many people still ignore the great benefit of enthomophagy. This study is a contribution to the valorization of Macrotermesalates in Lome (southern Togo). For this purpose, a survey was carried out in three municipalities of Golfe 3, Golfe 7 and Agoe-Nyive 1 (all located in the district of Lome) from June 14 to July 14, 2021. A total of 345 people were submitted to a set of questionary to assess the level of their knowledge and consequences related to the consumption of Macrotermes alates. The results revealed that more than 94% of the participants not only had a good knowledge of Macrotermes alates, but have also consumed them. Among the surveyed people, 48.67% consumed these alates for their taste while 28.67% consumed them for their nutritional value. Also, 43.70% of participants who had once consumed these alates, stated that they experienced gastrointestinal troubles following the consumption. Thus, although it is important to encourage the consumption of Macrotermes alates, hygienic precautions should be taken during the collection and processing of these alates in the interest of the health safety of consumers.

When creepy crawlies are cute as bugs: Investigating the effects of (cute) packaging design in the context of edible insects

Studies have repeatedly demonstrated the powerful effects product packaging cues like graphics, colors, or claims can have on consumers’ product expectations and sensory perception. However, the role of packaging in the context of insect consumption (entomophagy) has hardly received any scholarly attention. We address this issue by investigating how visual insect depictions on the packaging of edible insects affect the perception of disgust—a negative emotion motivating avoidance behavior—and willingness to try the product in a laboratory experiment (N = 72). Furthermore, we look at entomophagy from the perspective of young German adults. Based on theoretical and empirical considerations, we propose and demonstrate that insect-based food products are perceived as less disgusting when the packaging contains a cute or no (as compared to a realistic) insect image, and we also find that packaging design influences assumptions about target groups. We do not observe effects of packaging design on willingness to try the product. However, willingness to try was very high to begin with (83.3%), and of those who refused, most stated allergies or dietary constraints as causes. Contrary to previous research, we find that structural barriers (e.g., lack of opportunity or availability) are considered as more important reasons for not having consumed insects before than disgust. To our knowledge, our study is one of the first experimentally investigating the effects of (cute) packaging in the context of entomophagy. Our findings also offer interesting opportunities for further research and have direct implications for the marketing of edible insects.

How can the design thinking process improve an innovative insect-based food experience?

This work set out to show that the novel problem-solving process called design thinking (DT) can advance the acceptance and consumption of insects as food. The DT approach involving a multidisciplinary team comprised three stages: (1) an exploratory evaluation through questionnaires to raise consumer empathy, (2) an ideation stage to enable visualization and rapid prototyping, which resulted in the creation of twelve food products using mealworm larva and cricket flour and (3) an experimentation stage, where the five most promising ideas (packaging and products) were selected and tested on consumers. Four consumption trends were identified: vegetarianism (intellectual), challenge (social relationship), luxury (emotional) and sport (health). Prototypes corresponding to consumer needs were developed. After identifying the positive and negative effects elicited by the prototypes, the most promising ones were tested. Exposing consumers to small manageable steps during a food experience with insects dispelled false beliefs and overcame revulsion. The outcomes of this study are encouraging for the development of innovation in the food industry, favouring the acceptance of new foods and supporting the provision of healthier food choices for the general western population. These findings can also help companies adapt to the growing scarcity of resources and improve the value of innovations they offer the market.

“Food made with edible insects”: Exploring the social representation of entomophagy where it is unfamiliar

Insects have attracted much attention as a novel food source because of their environmental and nutritional advantages. In Latin America, some traditional groups consume insects; but the urban areas of Brazil resist adopting insects as food, like most Western countries. Thus, this study investigated the social representation of edible insects to understand the barrier behind this avoidance and to identify their segmentation in the Brazilian population. Seven hundred and eighty individuals were interviewed in all the Brazilian regions. The interview was composed of a word association task, a risk perception evaluation and two open-ended questions about the subject. According to the structural approach of social representation, Disgust was the primary association with edible insects. Three segments of consumers were identified using the risk perception of eating insects. The first segment, composed mainly of young men with higher educational levels, had the lowest risk perception, and the most positive attitude about entomophagy, their associations were also positive, such as Acceptance and Sustainability; the second had average risk perception and neutral attitude towards edible insects, with neutral and positive associations (e.g., Flavor and Culture); and the third, formed mostly by older women with lower educational level, presented the highest risk perception and the most negative attitude, and exhibited negative associations (Disgust, and Fear). The insect consumption in Brazil would be favored by using species of crickets, grasshoppers, ants, and their fried and roasted styles of preparations. Also, participants would eat insects mainly because of survival and curiosity.

Edible insect consumption and Turkish consumers’ attitudes towards entomophagy

Generally, in the world edible insects have gained popularity and awareness among people. Therefore, the study on Turkish consumers' attitudes and consumption towards entomophagy has important findings. The relationships edible insects with sociodemographic effects, demand to eat and personality traits of participants were determined by online questionnaire method. According to the results, most of the participants have not consumed edible insects before and furthermore both male and female consumers were not found to be positive tendency for eating edible insects. The main factors of rejection behaviors are disgusting, food neophobia and some health and religious concerns. However, a few participants have already consumed edible insects and have mainly exhibited this experience in abroad. Thereby, the study suggests that familiarity and awareness are the most significant factors changing attitudes towards to edible insect consumption for Turkish consumers. To determine consumption behavior and preferences of Turkish consumers, the most significant factors are overpassing the psychological barrier such as neophobia and facilitate entomophagy acceptance. This study could enable the development of strategies to increase desire of eating EI (edible insects) by Turkish consumers and promote insect production.

The origins and practice of insect-foraging technology

Over the course of our evolution, humans have developed increasingly sophisticated technology for utilising natural resources. The origins of these technologies are difficult to identify since they rely on natural resources that are often perishable in local environments so do not preserve for archaeologists to find millions of years later. However, by looking at our closest cousin in the order Primates, we see that chimpanzees utilise tools, most commonly for foraging for social insects such as ants and termites. This parallel suggests that our early ancestors would have had a similar capacity for making and using tools, quite possibly for the same goal of extracting insects from their nests. By 1.5 million years ago, we see archaeological evidence of tools used for insect foraging in the form of bone digging implements. With the evolution of our genusHomo, the capacity to use forethought to create more complicated tools opens up the possibility for baskets and nets. These items do not preserve in very ancient sediments, but they begin to appear around 25,000 years ago, and their utility to contemporary foraging populations supports the notion of a more ancient origin. Each of these advances intensifies human utilisation of insects as a food resource and are precursor to more extensive environmental manipulation and eventual agriculture. As insect consumption scales up around the world today, it requires increasing intensification, but this is a challenge humans have been overcoming for millions of years.