Inner-city Residents Research Articles

Inner-City Firms and the Employment Problem of the Urban Poor: Are Poor People Really Excluded from Jobs Located in their Own Neighborhoods?

This article investigates whether the employment problem of the urban poor has been exacerbated by inner-city employers and their use of hiring practices that limit local employment opportunities for residents of these neighborhoods. By using the Urban Poverty and Family Life Study’s survey of Chicago-area employers, this article estimates the effects of neighborhood poverty on a firm’s recruitment and screening practices while also estimating the impact of hiring practices and neighborhood poverty on the employment of local residents. The results suggest that the level of poverty in a firm’s neighborhood does not alter screening practices but significantly reduces recruitment through personal referrals and media advertisements. However, these different recruitment patterns do not significantly reduce a firm’s employment of neighborhood residents. Nor does firm-level neighborhood poverty affect its employment of neighborhood residents. Overall, these results suggest that inner-city residents are not excluded from jobs located in their own neighborhoods.

Social Networks and the Employment Problem of the Urban Poor

This paper investigates the link between social networks and the ability to find a job through a personal contact among adult inner-city residents. Using data collected by the National Opinion Research Center that interviewed 2490 adult inner-city residents, the impact of network structure and composition on finding a job through word-of-mouth is estimated. Ethnic differences in the rate of finding jobs through word-of-mouth were found, as well as interesting ethnic and racial differences in the way social networks operate to connect job-seekers and job vacancies. Overall, the findings suggest that social networks account for some of the employment problems that many inner-city residents face.

Chronic respiratory symptoms, von Willebrand factor and longitudinal decline in FEV 1

Although some risk factors for accelerated decline in forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV 1) such as cigarette smoking, are well defined, it is not possible to identify those individuals with the most rapid rates of decline. Von Willebrand factor (vWF) is a product of both the pulmonary and systemic endothelium, and serum levels are raised during episodes of acute bronchitis. We hypothesized that raised serum levels of vWF may indicate sub-clinical pulmonary injury and so may predict subsequent accelerated decline in FEV 1. The aims of this study were 1. to define the prevalence of chronic respiratory symptoms and obstructive airway disease in an inner-city British population and 2. to determine whether elevated levels of von Willebrand factor (vWF) identify those individuals at risk for more rapid decline in FEV 1 over time. In 1987, all 2013 individuals aged 45 to 74 years at an inner-city general practice were mailed a respiratory symptom questionnaire. One in six of the responders were asked to attend for spirometry and for assessment of serum vWF. In 1996, those individuals who had spirometry and vWF assessed in 1987 were traced, and repeat spirometry was performed. In 1987, 1527 of 2013 (75·8%) individuals completed the questionnaire. Forty-two point two percent of responders reported shortness of breath on hills, 34·7% reported wheeze and 31·6% reported mucus hypersecretion. Smokers were more likely to report these symptoms. Two hundred and ten of the 251 (84%) individuals approached had spirometry and vWF assessed. Eleven percent of these had both an FEV 1 <75% predicted and a forced expiratory ratio (FEV 1 forced vital capacity (FVC)) <70%. Sub-normal spirometry was associated with wheeze, mucus hypersecretion, cigarette smoking and increasing age. By 1996, 32 (15%) of the original group of 210 individuals had died, and 117 of the remaining 178 (66%) had spirometry repeated. FEV 1 <75% predicted was a strong predictor of interim mortality, independent of age, sex and smoking history. The average decline in FEV 1 was 46·7 ml yr −1. There was no significant correlation between serum vWF levels and subsequent decline in FEV 1. Chronic respiratory symptoms and spirometric evidence of airflow limitation are common in inner-city residents of the U.K., and are associated with smoking history. Much of this disease is unrecognised by health professionals. An FEV 1 <75% predicted is a strong independent predictor of subsequent mortality. The measurement of serum vWF levels is unhelpful in identifying those individuals at increased risk of accelerated decline in FEV 1.

Muddled Care, Managed Care

Muddled Care, Managed Care

Knowledge of Folic Acid and Neural Tube Defects Among Inner-City Residents

Knowledge of Folic Acid and Neural Tube Defects Among Inner-City Residents

Race and Theory: Culture, Poverty, and Adaptation to Discrimination in Wilson and Ogbu

This article provides the theoretical resources to resolve a number of conundrums in the work of William Julius Wilson and John Ogbu. Contrary to what Wilson's and Ogbu's work sometimes imply, inner-city blacks are not enmeshed in a “culture of poverty,” but rather are generally committed to mainstream values and their normative expectations. Activities that deviate from these values derive from the cognitive expectations inner-city blacks have formed in the face of their restricted legitimate opportunity structures. These expectations, which suggest that educational and occupational success are improbable for inner-city residents, are accurate. If their opportunities were to improve, their cognitive expectations would change and most would be committed to taking advantage of these new opportunities. The differences that separate the inner-city poor from whites center on cultural symbols, which help constitute their identity, sometimes in opposition to the white majority. Most deficiencies in performance among blacks stem not from these cultural attributes, but from the way they are processed in white-dominated organizations. Given a majority commitment to equal opportunity and a majority belief that blacks actually have equal opportunity, many conclude from their performance that blacks are in some sense inferior. This “new racism” overdetermines the performance of blacks.

Employment Impact of Inner-city Development Projects: The Case of Underground Atlanta

This paper makes use of a unique data set to explore the issue of whether inner-city residents are more likely to be hired by a new inner-city development than non-residents. A selection model with partial observability is specified and estimated. This partial observability model allows us to control for self-selection at the application stage and to obtain unconditional estimates at the hiring stage. We determine, holding individual and neighbourhood characteristics constant, that while inner-city residents are less likely to be considered 'hireable', their greater propensity to apply for jobs at this development means that they were at least as likely as non-residents to both apply and be hired. We also tentatively conclude that distance between an applicant's residence and the location of the development does not appear to have been an issue in the application decision.

Expanding urban learning experiences for non-traditional students.

Educating nurses in the motivation and ability to provide appropriate and quality health care to urban inner-city residents with complex and multiple health problems has been a continuing challenge to academic institutions. Recruiting appropriate students and providing meaningful learning experiences is the first of many challenges. Understanding and addressing the many barriers to accessing health services is an important learning outcome. Successful providers with underserved populations have been found to have a strong sense of service to humanity and pride in making a difference and have thrived on the challenges of creatively using limited resources to deal with their patients' complex needs. Establishing a Returned Peace Corps Fellows program and a community health nursing track within the undergraduate program in nursing has provided some successes and additional answers. While studying for a professional degree, the Fellows are placed in a service position to integrate their Peace Corps experiences into new professional learning as it is taking place and to earn a stipend to assist with the cost of their education. This has led to the development of a community health nursing track in the undergraduate program, a combination of required-for credit courses, credit-earning enrichment and independent study experiences, and stipend-earning clinical experiences outside the curriculum.

Building momentum: an ethnographic study of inner-city redevelopment.

One factor contributing to the decay of inner-city areas, and to consequent excess mortality, is the massive loss of housing. This report studied the effects of a redevelopment project on social functioning in an inner-city community. This ethnographic study included the following elements: a longitudinal study of 10 families living in renovated housing, repeated observations and photographing of the street scene, focus groups, and informal interviews with area residents. The project was located in the Bradhurst section of Harlem in New York City and was focused on a redevelopment effort sponsored by local congregations. Those who were able to move into newly renovated housing found that their living conditions were greatly improved. Neighborhood revitalization lagged behind the rehabilitation of individual apartment houses. This uneven redevelopment was a visual and sensory reminder of "what had been." Residents missed the warmth and social support that existed in Harlem before its decline. Rebuilding damaged housing contributes greatly to the well-being of inner-city residents. The current pace and scope of rebuilding are insufficient to restore lost vitality.

The Effects of Occupation and Industry on the Risk of Homicide Victimization in the United States

This study examined individual and structural covariates of homicides among males aged 15-64 years, focusing on whether occupation and industry are risk factors for victimization. Cox's proportional hazards regression models were fitted to data from the National Longitudinal Mortality Study to estimate the effects of selected micro-level and macro-level covariates on homicide. Multivariate analysis indicated considerable racial or ethnic and socioeconomic disparities in homicide. Compared to non-Hispanic whites, Hispanics and African Americans were at higher risk of death. Those in the lowest occupational strata had a particularly high homicide risk. Others at elevated risk of homicide were persons in low-income strata and inner-city residents. Results showed that the mining industry had a significant effect on homicide. Bivariate analysis revealed that equipment operatives, operatives in general, farm laborers, farmers and farm foremen had elevated risks of homicide. However, multivariate analysis indicated no occupational differentials in the risk of homicide.

How much do we count? interpretation and error-making in the decennial census

Following a critique of the 1990 decennial census procedures, we conducted a field study among low-income, inner-city residents in 1991 to examine how they conceptualized and managed the civic task of census response. Interpretations about the purpose and meaning of the census, about commitment to the task, and about connection to government, singly and together with literacy skills (e.g., reading and general literacy competence), were associated with errors that are not detectable by evaluative methodologies used regularly by the Census Bureau. The validity and reliability of census data, and possibly other self-administered survey research, will be increased by greater use of knowledge about both interpretation and literacy skills in formulating data collection procedures.

Critical Literacy and Institutional Language

Uses activist ethnographic field work to explore institutional language skills used by inner-city residents as they negotiated social services institutions. Shows residents’ critical awareness and political acumen as they complied with and resisted the structuring ideology of institutional agents. Raises questions about the methods of key critical pedagogues and the appropriateness of their assumption of false consciousness among disenfranchised people.

Women’s Employment and Commuting: Explaining the Links

This article reviews recent research on the link between women’s commuting and labor force participation and identifies five key themes in the literature. Women’s shorter work trips have been explained in terms of women’s low wages, the need to coordinate dual roles as mothers and wage earners, and as a reflection of a more even distribution of jobs that traditionally hire women. Short work trips may also reflect spatial entrapment in highly localized labor markets. Finally, shorter work trips may reflect a spatial mismatch between low-income and minority women’s residential locations and entry-level jobs; thus, employment may entail much longer commutes for inner-city residents. This article evaluates research within each theme, identifies future research needs, and explores the implications for current policy debates over welfare reform.

Exploring Lay Definitions of Asthma and Interpersonal Barriers to Care in a Predominantly Puerto Rican, Inner-City Community

Lay definitions of asthma were elicited through a single open-ended question from a population-based sample of mostly Puerto Rican, inner-city residents in Buffalo, New York. One hundred fifty-five household responses to the question, “What do you think asthma is?” were analyzed qualitatively using the editing approach. Five common codes emerged in order of significance: “symptoms,” “disease,” “triggers,” “threat,” and “coping.” Overall, expressions of illness reflected a largely symptomatic perception of asthma regardless of asthma status. Perceptions of “disease” increased with higher level of education. Patients’ definitions of illness should be considered to help reduce interpersonal barriers to asthma care.

Knowledge of Folic Acid and Neural Tube Defects among Inner-City Residents: Have they Heard about It?

Knowledge of Folic Acid and Neural Tube Defects among Inner-City Residents: Have they Heard about It?

A tuberculin screening and isoniazid preventive therapy program in an inner-city population.

As tuberculosis transmission decreases, case rates decline and an increasing proportion of cases arises from the pool of persons with latent infection. Elimination of tuberculosis will require preventing disease from developing in infected persons. From 1994 to 1996 the Atlanta TB Prevention Coalition conducted a community-based tuberculin screening and isoniazid preventive therapy project among high-risk inner-city residents of Atlanta, Georgia. We established screening centers in outpatient waiting areas of the public hospital serving inner-city residents, the city jail, clinics serving the homeless, and with outreach teams in neighborhoods frequented by drug users. All services were provided free. A total of 7,246 persons participated in tuberculin testing; 4,701 (65%) adhered with skin test reading, 809 (17%) had a positive test, 409 (50%) fit current guidelines for isoniazid preventive therapy, 84 (20%) we intended to treat completed therapy. The major limitations of this community-based tuberculin screening and preventive therapy project were the low proportion of infected individuals who were eligible for isoniazid preventive therapy and the poor adherence with a complete regimen among those we intended to treat. For community-based programs to be efficacious, preventive therapy regimens that are of shorter duration and safe for older persons will need to be implemented.

Race, Education, and Joblessness in the Inner City, 1970–1990

In When Work Disappears, William Julius Wilson argues that the difficulties black inner-city residents face in finding work has more to do with their failure to acquire the kinds of education, skills, and work habits required by changes in the urban labor market than with racial discrimination. In this essay, I argue that this notion tends both to obscure the substantial gains African-Americans have made in education and to discount the degree to which race continues to mediate the relationship between educational achievement and labor market outcomes. Although there is no question that the economic position of those with little education has deteriorated badly over the last two decades, absent policies that address the persistent racial disparities in employment, reforming education by itself will not substantially improve African-American employment opportunities or reduce black joblessness in the inner city.

Prosocial coping and substance use during pregnancy

In structured interviews of pregnant inner-city residents, 38 substance users reported more current liking of drugs and polysubstance use, disengagement coping, depressive symptoms, negative affect, and antisocial behavior than did 45 nonusers. During videotaped interviews, trained observers coded less warmth and less prosocial information exchange (e.g., self-disclosure, question asking) among users. Factor analysis of measures of coping and its concomitants yielded a three-factor (prosocial, antisocial, asocial) solution, with asocial and antisocial coping predominating among substance users. These results suggest that coping has emotional, social, and cognitive elements. This study is the first to demonstrate an association between a substance-using lifestyle and limited prosocial information exchange.

Leaving Poverty through Work: A Review of Current Development Strategies

Jobs are increasingly central to economic development, welfare reform, and urban policy. This emphasis on increasing employment among the poor comes at a time of stagnant wages for people with modest skills and no college education. The current movement to promote work poses a fundamental dilemma: How can the dependent poor obtain jobs that offer sufficient income and benefits to prevent them from becoming the working poor? This article assesses four contrasting policy approaches to move poor inner-city residents out of poverty through work. Although promising examples can be cited across the four strategies-job training, job creation through local economic development, worker mobility/access to jobs, and the federal Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC)-all but the EITC are unable to provide sufficient wages to bring workers above the poverty line.

Firearm ownership in households with children

Background/Purpose: Increased morbidity and mortality rates in children injured by firearms has been well documented during this past decade. The aim of this study was to determine the socioeconomic factors affecting firearm ownership in families with children living in suburban/rural versus inner-city environments, and to identify predictors of firearm ownership in these families. Methods: Parents of children less than 19 years old seen in a suburban (n = 751) or inner-city hospital (n = 406) anonymously completed a questionnaire regarding firearm ownership. Results: Firearm ownership was 54% in rural locations, versus 18% among inner-city residents ( P < .05). Firearm ownership in white households was 45% versus 20% in African-American households ( P < .05). Mean number of all types of firearms in white households was 3.38 versus 1.78 in black households ( P < .001). Firearm ownership was 19% in the less than $20,000 income bracket, significantly lower than households with greater incomes, and was significantly lower in households in which parents had the least education (19.7%) versus those with college degrees (38.5%; P < .05). Firearm owners of rifles and shotguns significantly more often cited hunting, collection, and target shooting as reasons for owning firearms, in contrast to revolver owners who cited protection and collection as reasons for firearm ownership ( P < .05). Conclusions: Firearm ownership is higher in rural, caucasian versus inner-city African-American residents and is significantly less in households with lower income and educational levels. Significant predictors for firearm ownership were number of parents in households, educational level of parents, and population of residence.