Inland China Research Articles

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in birds from Chongming Island, Yangtze estuary, China: Insight into migratory behavior

Sum-PBDEs concentrations in shorebirds and Anatidae ducks muscles from Chongming Dongtan National Nature Reserve ranged from 21–324 to 14–159ngg−1 lw, respectively. PBDEs were detected in muscles of all the studied species. Compared with flyways around the world, migratory waterbirds on the East Asian–Australasian flyway exhibited lower PBDEs burdens than those reported on Black Sea-Mediterranean flyway in Europe and Pacific, Atlantic, Mississippi flyway in North America. Residential Eurasian tree sparrow samples indicated few PBDE products were used in Chongming Island developed in the idea of world famous eco-island. There was no significant difference in PBDEs concentrations between shorebirds and ducks. However, PBDEs composition varied between them. BDE 209 (29–44%) contributed to sum-PBDEs more than BDE 47 (17–19%) in muscles of ducks, while BDE 47 was the predominant congener in shorebirds contributing 32–48%. Stable nitrogen and carbon isotopes and stomach content analysis indicated shorebirds and ducks had the same dietary composition, but showed different preference to bivalves, gastropods and crustaceans for shorebirds and aquatic plant material for ducks. Migratory species had inherent migratory routes and thus had exposure to PBDEs during their stay in breeding grounds, stopover sites and wintering grounds with high use of different commercial PBDE mixtures. Higher percentage of BDE 209 in ducks than shorebirds suggested that breeding ranges and wintering grounds of ducks comprise wetlands in inland and coastal China and Korea where decaBDEs pollution was serious in Asian-Pacific region. Our findings reveal the influence of migratory behavior on PBDEs distribution in migratory waterbirds.

Impact of Gobi desert dust on aerosol chemistry of Xi'an, inland China during spring 2009: differences in composition and size distribution between the urban ground surface and the mountain atmosphere

Abstract. Composition and size distribution of atmospheric aerosols from Xi'an city (~400 m, altitude) in inland China during the spring of 2009 including a massive dust event on 24 April were measured and compared with a parallel measurement at the summit (2060 m, altitude) of Mt. Hua, an alpine site nearby Xi'an. EC (elemental carbon), OC (organic carbon) and major ions in the city were 2–22 times higher than those on the mountaintop during the whole sampling period. Compared to that in the non-dust period a sharp increase in OC was observed at both sites during the dust period, which was mainly caused by an input of biogenic organics from the Gobi desert. However, adsorption/heterogeneous reaction of gaseous organics with dust was another important source of OC in the urban, contributing 22% of OC in the dust event. In contrast to the mountain atmosphere where fine particles were less acidic when dust was present, the urban fine particles became more acidic in the dust event than in the non-dust event, mainly due to enhanced heterogeneous formation of nitrate and diluted NH3. Cl− and NO3− in the urban air during the dust event significantly shifted toward coarse particles. Such redistributions were further pronounced on the mountaintop when dust was present, resulting in both ions almost entirely staying in coarse particles. On the contrary, no significant spatial difference in size distribution of SO42− was found between the urban ground surface and the mountain atmosphere, which dominated in the fine mode (<2.1 μm) during the nonevent and comparably distributed in the fine (<2.1 μm) and coarse (>2.1 μm) modes during the dust event.

Does financial aid help poor students succeed in college?

The rapid expansion of enrollment capacity in China's colleges since the late 1990s has come at the price of high tuition hikes. China's government has put forth financial aid programs to enable poor students to access higher education. Although studies have shown that poor high school students are indeed able to attend college when their test scores are high enough (that is, few are unable to attend when they are qualified to attend), the literature has not explored whether poor students have sufficient amounts of aid to thrive in college.Using findings from a randomized controlled trial, this study evaluates the impact of providing full scholarships to students from poor rural areas (henceforth treatment students) on student stress levels, self-esteem/self-efficacy, and participation in activities in four first-tier colleges. To do so, we compare outcomes of the treatment students with students who were not given full scholarships by the project (and were left to search for scholarships and other sources of financial aid from the university system itself—the control students). The project was run among the 200 poorest first-year students in four first-tier colleges in inland China. Somewhat surprisingly, we find that treatment students (those receiving full scholarships from the project) were only slightly more successful in obtaining financial aid than control students. This suggests that control students (those who did not receive full scholarships from the project) were still able to access comparable levels of financial aid. Most importantly, scholarship recipients were statistically identical in outcome to control students in terms of stress, self-esteem, and participation in college activities, suggesting that poor students (who are dependent on aid from the university system) currently are able to access sufficient levels of financial aid, are able to take advantage of the activities offered at college, and do not shoulder heavy financial or psychological costs.We find, therefore, that efforts of the government to alleviate the financial burden of college on the poor have been relatively successful in first-tier colleges. Because of this, foundations and individuals may decide that if they want to improve human welfare, giving additional scholarships at high tier colleges may be having little effect.

黄土高原の山腹緑化に生じた南北斜面間差と今後の課題

中国内陸部に広がる黄土高原の半乾燥地における斜面の緑化状況を，現地で撮影した38 地点の景観画像解析により検討した。南向きと北向きの斜面を同一条件で撮影した画像をもとに，斜面を5 つの植生タイプに分類した。斜面内の各植生タイプ占有割合は斜面方位によって異なり，北向き斜面では広葉樹が占める面積が高く，南向き斜面では裸地が占める割合が高かった。南北斜面と微地形単位を組み合わせると，より湿潤なサイトでは植生タイプに対する地形の影響がより明瞭であり，より乾燥したサイトでは不明瞭であった。南北斜面間差と微地形単位は黄土高原における植生発達の重要な規定要因であり，この方法はこれまで行われてきた緑化方法では緑化困難な場所の抽出に有効と考えられた。

Adopting ro-ro transportation in inland China: a decision criteria survey of shippers, forwarders, and haulers

China’s western inland has experienced rapid economic development during the past two decades. One possible solution for firms in this area to meet cost reduction challenges is the increased use of roll-on/roll-off (ro-ro) practices as part of their intermodal transportation strategies. This study focuses on customer adoption of ro-ro transportation between two major hubs, Chongqing and Wuhan, on the Yangtze River. Through qualitative and quantitative methods, the study examined the determinants on ro-ro transportation choices made by shippers, forwarders, and haulers in Western China. The research discovered that customers use comprehensive consideration sets when considering transportation choices. Four major aspects of determinants were revealed: cost reduction, transportation lead-time, convenience, and safety issues. It was also discovered that priorities change among different types of customers. Implications for developing effective alternative transportation strategies in developing countries such as China are provided.

Working Conditions and Job Satisfaction of China's New Generation of Migrant Workers: Evidence from an Inland City

China is experiencing notable changes in rural-urban migration. Young, more educated migrants with different attitudes towards living and working form an increasing share of the migrant labour force. At the same time, the destinations of migrants are changing as a result of government policies and the global financial crisis. More migrants than before find jobs in medium and small size cities, often located in western and central China. Understanding the characteristics and attitudes of the changing migrant labour force is becoming a major challenge in sustainably managing migration flows and urbanization. Little hard evidence is available on the working conditions and job attitudes of migrant workers, particularly for inland China. The purpose of this paper is to provide insights into the characteristics, working conditions and job attitudes of the new generation of migrants, defined as those born in the 1980s and 1990s, as compared to the traditional generation in a typical medium-size city in western China. Data collected through a household survey conducted among 1,048 migrants in Guiyang City, capital of Guizhou Province, are used for this purpose. We find significant differences in occupational characteristics and working conditions between the two generations. Contrary to popular beliefs, we find that the level of job satisfaction is higher among the new generation of migrants. Using an ordered logit model to examine factors contributing to job satisfaction, we find that age and gender do not have a significant impact for young migrants, while working conditions play a major role. Among these, it is not so much the income level that matters for young migrants, but other working conditions. Using a Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition, we derive that it is mainly the difference in working conditions and other endowments that explains the higher job satisfaction of young migrants, not the differences between generations in the valuations of these endowments.

COII phylogeography reveals surprising divergencies within the cryptic butterfly Kallima inachus (Doyére, 1840) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Kallimini) in southeastern Asia

Partial sequences (681 bp) of the mitochondrial gene, cytochrome c oxidase subunit II (COII), were used to assess the genetic diversity among populations of the Oriental butterfly, Kallima inachus (Doyére 1840) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Kallimini), distributed through the southeastern Asian tropical and subtropical areas. Two haplotypes from Tibet and the Hainan Island are deeply divergent from each other, as well as from all other haplotypes (5.43%–7.05%, uncorrected), implying cryptic species might exist in the present morphological species K. inachus. Haplotypic divergences within the range north from Guangxi and within southern Yunnan are quite shallow. Phylogenetic analysis show the population in southern Yunnan should be an evolutionary significant entity distinct from the inland China populations, while those in the Sichuan Basin, southeast mainland China and the Taiwan Island are not genetically subdivided, suggesting the status of subspecies K. i. formosana Fruhstörfer, 1912 should be reconsidered. The rapid uplift of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau as well as dramatic climatic changes from the late Pliocene in the region could have served as main driving forces of the allopatric divergences within K. inachus, as well as among probable cryptic sibling species.

Rice consumption contributes to low level methylmercury exposure in southern China

Fish consumption is considered as the primary pathway of human methylmercury (MeHg) exposure. However, recent studies highlighted that, rice, rather than fish, is the main route of human MeHg exposure in Guizhou, inland China. China is considered as the largest anthropogenic source of mercury (Hg) emission in the world, which has led to serious environmental Hg pollution. But there are no comprehensive studies regarding this environmental health problem to evaluate human Hg exposure and associated health effects. This study aimed to estimate daily MeHg intake and health risk in 7 provinces in southern China, and to assess the relative contribution from rice and fish consumption. The average levels of total mercury (THg) and MeHg in rice samples were generally low at 10.1ng·g−1 and 2.47ng·g−1, respectively. But a total of 36 rice samples (12.7%) had THg concentration exceeding the national limit (20ng·g−1). Generally, rural population had significantly higher Probable Daily Intakes (PDIs) of MeHg than urban population from rice consumption and its relative contribution to MeHg exposure increased significantly from coastal to inland area. The averages of PDIs of MeHg were 0.020μg·kg−1·d−1 and 0.028μg·kg−1·d−1 for urban and rural population in southern China, respectively. Despite the serious environmental Hg pollutions in China, the general population in southern China had low risk of MeHg exposure. But rice is an important route of human MeHg exposure in southern China, especially for the rural population in inland area. The findings indicate that rice consumption should be considered when evaluating MeHg exposure in rice eating population in southern China.

No Longer the Gold Standard

No Longer the Gold Standard

Tracing the origin and history of HIV-1 subtype B′ epidemic by near full-length genome analyses

To investigate the origin and evolutionary history of HIV-1 subtype B' responsible for the epidemic among injecting drug users (IDUs), former plasma donors (FPDs) and the subsequent heterosexual transmission in China. A total of 33 sequences of subtype B' near full-length genomes (NFLGs) sampled during 1998-2009 in 11 provinces across China were determined. The NFLGs were subjected to Bayesian molecular clock analyses to estimate the time of the most recent common ancestors (tMRCAs) and to reconstitute the time-space process of subtype B' dissemination in China. The study revealed that subtype B' strains in China can be classified into two distinct subgroups: a monophyletic B' cluster (B'CN*) consisting of subtype B' sequences mainly from FPDs and heterosexuals across China outside of Yunnan; B' strains circulating among IDUs in Yunnan (B'YN) that occupy the most basal position of B' clade in China. The tMRCAs of B'YN and B'CN* were estimated to be 1985 (1982-1987) and 1989 (1987-1991), respectively. The skyline plot profile revealed the explosive nature of subtype B' expansion in central China in the mid-1990s. Our results suggest that subtype B' epidemics among FPDs and heterosexuals in inland China were most likely originated from a single founding subtype B' strain that had been circulating among IDUs in Yunnan province. Yunnan province plays a pivotal role in bridging the preexisting subtype B' epidemics in south-east Asia with the subsequent epidemic among FPDs and heterosexuals in inland China.

Impacts of business environment changes on global manufacturing outsourcing in China

PurposeRising production costs in coastal China have caused the popularity of the “China plus one” strategy, and the hike in oil prices favors near‐shore outsourcing to reduce transportation costs. Taking into consideration supply chain strategy, this paper aims to investigate the impacts of these major business environment changes on manufacturing outsourcing in China.Design/methodology/approachConsidering costs and lead times, a bi‐objective integer programming model is developed to determine optimal supply chain configuration decisions under various business environment scenarios. A case study with a family of footwear products is used to illustrate model application and present detailed analyses.FindingsImpacts of factors could be non‐intuitive. Partial relocation may be better than relocating all manufacturing steps to lower‐cost regions. Coastal China is still attractive for products with short order lead times, because of its formation of industrial clusters and efficient logistics services.Research limitations/implicationsOnly tangible factors including costs and lead times are evaluated; however, they offer valuable insight for the strategic decision of selecting outsourcing locations.Practical implicationsThe analyses suggest differentiated outsourcing strategies depending on product and demand characteristics. The trend of moving manufacturing away from China is exaggerated. Coastal China has established industrial clusters and efficient logistics support to enable supply chain responsiveness; while inland China maintains a low cost comparable with competing Asian countries.Originality/valueExisting studies on the research phenomenon focused on cost factors alone. This paper analyzes lead times as well. The study also introduces the network perspective into the research of offshore manufacturing outsourcing.

Rising Inequality in China and the Move to a Balanced Economy

AbstractChina faces serious external (i.e. trade) and internal (i.e. structural) imbalances. Both are related to income inequality, reduction of which will help to increase domestic demand. This paper discusses how income inequality has evolved over time. This is followed by an exploration of the consequences of high inequality. Driving forces underlying the rising inequality are analyzed before providing concrete policy recommendations. It is found that inequality declined in the early period of reform, until the mid to late 1980s, and then began a rising trend up to 2010. Major determinants of inequality include: location, institutional and policy factors, trade and globalization, and education inequality and human capital gaps along rural–urban and spatial divisions. To achieve a balanced economy and a harmonious society, development policies in China must shift from emphasizing growth to prioritizing equality. In addition, government interventions can target rural–urban disparity through rapid urbanization, and tackle regional inequality by developing financial markets, ensuring progressive allocation of fiscal resources, promoting trade and foreign direct investment in inland China, creating more formal jobs and supporting the service sector.

Reducing total mercury and methylmercury accumulation in rice grains through water management and deliberate selection of rice cultivars

Rice consumption has been identified as a major route of methylmercury (MeHg) exposure in some areas of inland China. We investigated two potential mitigation methods (water management and deliberate selection of rice cultivars) to reduce the amount of total mercury (Hg) and MeHg within the grain. Rice grown aerobically had markedly reduced total Hg and MeHg concentrations as well as a much lower proportion of MeHg in the grain. Remarkably, there were considerable variations in the total Hg and MeHg concentrations as well as the proportion of MeHg in the grain among the 24 cultivars grown in the same paddy soil. The Hg tolerance index (expressed as % mean of control root growth) also varied substantially among the different cultivars. Furthermore, negative correlations were found between the total Hg and MeHg concentrations ( P < 0.05) of grain and the proportion of MeHg in the grain ( P < 0.01).

Precipitation chemistry at a high elevation forest in central Taiwan

High elevation ecosystems are particularly sensitive to environmental change. Mountain agriculture is extending to areas at high elevations in Taiwan but the effects on nutrient cycling of the surrounding ecosystems are largely unknown. We examined precipitation chemistry at Piluchi Experimental Forest in central Taiwan to evaluate the contributions of local air pollution and long-range transport of air pollutants on nutrient cycling at this seemingly remote forest. Sea-salt aerosols and anthropogenic pollutants resulting from long-range transport of air pollutants and mountain agriculture activities are the key factors affecting precipitation chemistry at Piluchi Experimental Forest. Precipitation chemistry was dominated by ions of oceanic origin in the summer and by anthropogenic pollutants SO42−, NO3− and NH4+ in the winter and spring, the northeast monsoon season. The much higher concentrations of S and N in the northeast monsoon season than the summer suggest a substantial contribution from long-range transport as the prevailing air masses moved from inland China and passed over the industrialized east coast of China before arriving in Taiwan. The very high concentration of NH4+ (22 μeq L−1) in the spring, when the local application of N-containing fertilizers was high, signifies the influences of mountain agriculture. Despite very low concentrations relative to other sites in Taiwan, annual input of NH4+ (3.6 kg ha−1 year−1), NO3− (7.2 kg ha−1 year−1) and SO42− (10 kg ha−1 year−1) via precipitation was substantial suggesting that high elevation ecosystems of Taiwan are not free from the threat of atmospheric deposition of pollutants.

Air pollution episodes associated with East Asian winter monsoons

A dozen multi-day pollution episodes occur from October to February in Hanoi, Vietnam due to prolonged anticyclonic conditions established after the northeast monsoon surges (cold surges). These winter pollution episodes (WPEs) account for most of the 24-h PM 10 exceedances and the highest concentrations of gaseous pollutants in Hanoi. In this study, WPEs were investigated using continuous air quality monitoring data and information on upper-air soundings and air mass trajectories. The 24-h pollutant concentrations are lowest during cold surges; concurrently rise thereafter reaching the highest levels toward the middle of a monsoon cycle, then decline ahead of the next cold surge. Each monsoon cycle usually proceeds through a dry phase and a humid phase as Asiatic continental cold air arrives in Hanoi through inland China then via the East China Sea. WPEs are associated with nighttime radiation temperature inversions (NRTIs) in the dry phase and subsidence temperature inversions (STIs) in the humid phase. In NRTI periods, the rush hour pollution peak is more pronounced in the evening than in the morning and the pollution level is about two times higher at night than in daytime. In STI periods, broad morning and evening traffic peaks are observed and pollution is as high at night as in daytime. The close association between pollution and winter monsoon meteorology found in this study for the winter 2003–04 may serve as a basis for advance warning of WPEs and for forecasting the 24-h pollutant concentrations.

Impacts of business environment changes on global manufacturing in the Chinese Greater Pearl River Delta: a supply chain perspective

Business operating conditions have changed substantially in the Chinese Greater Pearl River Delta (GPRD) due to the Chinese currency appreciation, rising labour costs, highly volatile oil prices and new processing trade policies. Such changes have triggered manufacturers to rethink their global operations. This article studies potential global manufacturing trends from a supply chain perspective. A mixed integer programming model suggests that these changes have negatively affected the region's competitive advantages as its labour-intensive production mainly targets at the mass market and competes on low costs. Three production relocation trends are affirmed, i.e. the relocation to lower-cost areas within China, lower-cost Asian countries and areas near end markets. However, it is also discovered that the GPRD region still attracts businesses with its formation of industrial clusters, the enhanced comparative advantage against competing regions in inland China or Asian lower-cost countries under high oil prices, and Hong Kong's being a robust location choice to host trade operations.

Factors associated with the oral health-related quality of life in elderly persons in dental clinic: validation of a Mandarin Chinese version of GOHAI

To translate the original English version of Geriatric Oral Health Assessment Index (GOHAI) into Mandarin Chinese and assess its reliability and validity for use among the elderly in inland China and to explore the factors associated with oral health-related quality of life (OHRQoL). The original English version of GOHAI was translated, back-translated and cross-culturally adapted. The psychometric properties of GOHAI-M were assessed in a sample of 263 people aged 60 years and over and OHRQoL was examined in 221 subjects using GOHAI-M. Multiple regression analysis was conducted. Internal consistency of the GOHAI-M was excellent (Cronbach's α:0.81). Split-half reliability coefficient was 0.80, and item-scale correlation coefficient ranged from 0.25 to 0.71. Self-rated oral health was significantly associated with OHRQoL (r(s)=0.505, p<0.01). The relation coefficient between GOHAI-M and self-perceived need for dental treatment and number of missing teeth were 0.231 and -0.653, respectively (p<0.05). Multiple regression analysis found that better OHRQoL was significantly associated with better self-ratings of oral health (β=0.497, p=0.01), number of missing teeth (β=0.187, p<0.01) and life satisfaction (β=0.132, p<0.05). The Mandarin Chinese version of GOHAI demonstrates acceptable reliability and validity. OHRQoL is associated with self-rated oral health, number of missing teeth and satisfaction with life.

Nucleotide Sequence Variations in a Medicinal Relative of Asparagus, &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;Asparagus cochinchinensis&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt; (Lour.) Merrill (Asparagaceae)

To determine the eVolutionary history of Asparagus cochinchinensis (Asparagaceae), we investigated the geographic pattern of its nucleotide sequence variations in Japan, Taiwan, South Korea and China. We found 21 polymorphic nucleotide sites by sequencing the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region, which gave rise to a total of 15 haplotypes, labeled A to O. The A-type was found only in inland China (Guizhou and Sichuan), and the other haplotypes in China extended to several lineages; therefore, A. cochinchinensis may have its origin in the interior of China. The I-type has large distribution area and it also experienced a quick expansion in relative recent years. Haplotype differentiation was observed between the eastern and western side of the Central Mountain Ridge in Taiwan. Two lineages were found in Japan, one in the Yaeyama Islands and the other in remaining areas of Japan, implying that A. cochinchinensis independently colonized in Japan at least twice.

Relationship between the Arctic Oscillation and Cold Surges over East Asia

Abstract The present study reveals the changes in the characteristics of cold surges over East Asia associated with the Arctic Oscillation (AO). Based on circulation features, cold surges are grouped into two general types: wave train and blocking types. The blocking type of cold surge tends to occur during negative AO periods, that is, the AO-related polarity of the blocking type. However, the wave train type is observed during both positive and negative AO periods, although the wave train features associated with negative AO are relatively weaker. The cold surges during negative AO are stronger than those during positive AO in terms of both amplitude and duration. The cold surges during positive AO in which the extent of effect is confined to inland China passes through East Asia quickly because of weaker Siberian high and Aleutian low, leading to short duration of these cold surges. In contrast, the cold surge during negative AO, characterized by a well-organized anticyclone–cyclone couplet with high pressure over continental East Asia and low pressure over Japan, brings continuous cold air into the entire East Asian region for more than one week with long-lasting cold advection. It is also found that the tracks of the cold surges during negative AO tend to occur more frequently over Korea and Japan and less frequently over China, compared with those during positive AO. The tracks are related to a west–east dipole structure of the ratio of rain conversion to snow according to AO phase, resulting in freezing precipitation or snowfall events over inland China (Korea and Japan) are likely to occur more frequently during the positive (negative) AO periods.

中国内陸部都市近郊における農業生産と兼業労働の実態分析

中国内陸部都市近郊における農業生産と兼業労働の実態分析