Spleen iNKT Cells Research Articles

SPLENIC INVARIANT NATURAL KILLER T CELLS PLAY A SIGNIFICANT ROLE IN THE RESPONSE TO POLYMICROBIAL SEPSIS.

Background: Sepsis is marked by a dysregulated immune response to an infection. Invariant natural killer T cells ( i NKT cells) are a pluripotent lymphocyte subpopulation capable of affecting and coordinating the immune response to sepsis. The spleen is an important site of immune interactions in response to an infection. Splenic i NKT cells have emerged as important potential frontline mediators of chronic immune response. There are few data addressing the role splenic of i NKT cells in response to intra-abdominal polymicrobial sepsis. Methods: The cecal ligation and puncture model was used to create intra-abdominal sepsis in 8- to 12-week-old wild-type, i NKT -/- , or programmed cell death receptor-1 (PD-1) -/- mice. Twenty-four hours later, spleens were harvested. Flow cytometry was used for phenotyping using monoclonal antibodies. Cell sort was used to isolate i NKT cells. A macrophage cell line was used to assess i NKT cell-phagocyte interactions. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used for cytokine analysis. Results: Splenic i NKT-cell populations rapidly declined following induction of sepsis. Within i NKT-cell -/- mice, a distinct baseline hyperinflammatory environment was noted. Within wild type, sepsis induced an increase in splenic IL-6 and IL-10, whereas in i NKT -/- mice, there was no change in elevated IL-6 levels and a noted decrease in IL-10 expression. Further, following sepsis, PD-1 expression was increased upon spleen i NKT cells. With respect to PD-1 ligands upon phagocytes, PD-1 ligand expression was unaffected, whereas PD-L2 expression was significantly affected by the presence of PD-1. Conclusions: Invariant natural killer T cells play a distinct role in the spleen response to sepsis, an effect mediated by the checkpoint protein PD-1. Given that modulators are available in clinical trials, this offers a potential therapeutic target in the setting of sepsis-induced immune dysfunction.

Decrease of spleen invariant natural killer T and natural killer cell numbers in Burkholderia thailandensis-infected C57BL/6 mice.

Burkholderia thailandensis is a non-pathogenic bacterium that is closely related to B. pseudomallei. Invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells are innate lymphoid cells that play a role in bacterial infections; however the iNKT cells in B. thailandensis infections are still uncharacterized. To study the cytokine production in α-galactosylceramide (α-GalCer)-stimulated lymphocytes from mouse organs. The numbers of spleen iNKT cells, natural killer (NK) cells, dendritic cells and macrophages in B. thailandensis- infected C57BL/6 (B6) mice were investigated. Lymphocytes, obtained from mouse lungs, liver, and spleen, were cultured for 48 hours with α-GalCer, and their cytokine levels were determined. iNKT, dendritic, macrophage and NK cells in the spleen of B. thailandensis-infected B6 mice or iNKT knock out (KO) mice, stimulated with either phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) or α-GalCer, were analyzed by flow cytometry. This was also done in adoptive cell transfer experiments. Interferon gamma (IFN-γ) was predominantly produced in α-GalCer-stimulated mouse spleen and liver lymphocytes, while interleukin (IL)-13 was the main cytokine found in the lungs. B. thailandensis-infected mice had a significantly lower number of splenic iNKT, NK and dendritic cells, but not macrophages, compared to the control. Interestingly, the number of NK cells was significantly decreased in iNKT wild type and iNKT KO mice after B. thailandensis infection. The number of NK cells recovered by activation with α-GalCer or after adoptive transfer of iNKT cells into KO mice. The iNKT cell-mediated reduction of dendritic and NK cells might be related to infection by B. thailandensis. B. thailandensis decreased the number of iNKT and NK cells in the spleen of infected mice.

Murine iNKT cells are depleted by liver damage via activation of P2RX7.

Invariant natural killer T cells (iNKT) constitute up to 50% of liver lymphocytes and contribute to immunosurveillance as well as pathogenesis of the liver. Systemic activation of iNKT cells induces acute immune-mediated liver injury. However, how tissue damage events regulate iNKT cell function and homeostasis remains unclear. We found that specifically tissue-resident iNKT cells in liver and spleen express the tissue-damage receptor P2RX7 and the P2RX7-activating ectoenzyme ARTC2. P2RX7 expression restricted formation of iNKT cells in the liver suggesting that liver iNKT cells are actively restrained under homeostatic conditions. Deliberate activation of P2RX7 in vivo by exogenous NAD resulted in a nearly complete iNKT cell ablation in liver and spleen in a P2RX7-dependent manner. Tissue damage generated by acetaminophen-induced liver injury reduced the number of iNKT cells in the liver. The tissue-damage-induced iNKT cell depletion was driven by P2RX7 and localized to the site of injury, as iNKT cells in the spleen remained intact. The depleted liver iNKT cells reconstituted only slowly compared to other lymphocytes such as regulatory T cells. These findings suggest that tissue-damage-mediated depletion of iNKT cells acts as a feedback mechanism to limit iNKT cell-induced pathology resulting in the establishment of a tolerogenic environment.

Combination Therapy of Allogeneic HSCT and In Vivo Activated iNKT Cells Prevents Acute Gvhd While Augmenting GVL Effect

Adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is a highly aggressive cancer with poor clinical prognosis and high relapse rate. Whereas allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT) is an effective treatment for highly differentiated hematologic malignancies, allo-HSCT provides only limited benefits for treating ALL with relapses frequent. Additionally, the development of graft-versus-host-disease (GVHD) remains a major concern for allo-HSCT recipients. Invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells are a subset of T lymphocytes that express both a semi-invariant T cell receptor and natural killer cell markers. They recognize lipid antigens presented by non-polymorphic CD1d and have been reported to directly target CD1d+ solid tumors. Many B-ALL, including the P210 B-ALL cell line, are also CD1d+. Clinically, increased iNKT cells have simultaneously been correlated with reduced risk of developing acute GVHD and lower rates of malignant relapse. Because iNKT cells comprise only a tiny fraction of total T cells, we established a protocol to insert an iNKT TCR into murine HSC, thereby generating retrogenic mice with 5-10x expansion of iNKT cells in spleen and liver. Although engineered T cell therapy, including CD19-CART therapy, has proven to be effective in inducing remission in many B-ALL patients, when used as a monotherapy, relapse remains a major obstacle. We therefore tested whether a combination of allo-HSCT and iNKT cell therapy could robustly prevent GVHD while preserving graft-versus-leukemia effects (GVL). To test whether the addition of iNKT cells into allo-graft was capable of preventing acute GVHD (aGVHD), lethally irradiated BALB/C were given B6 bone marrow (2.5 x 106) and whole splenocytes (2.5 x 106, 5 x 106, or 10 x 106) from either B6 or retrogenic B6-iNKT mice. Mice that received 5 x 106 B6 splenocytes developed lethal aGVHD and became moribund by Day 10. Half of the mice that received 2.5 x 106 B6 splenocytes develop lethal aGVHD and died by Day 20. In contrast, only half of the mice that received 5 x 106 or 10 x 106 B6-iNKT splenocytes developed lethal aGVHD by Day 20, and all recipients of 2.5 x 106 B6 splenocytes remained alive by Day 20, suggesting the addition of iNKT cells into allograft may reduce the severity of aGVHD. To test whether adding iNKT cells to allograft could enhance GVL without causing GVHD, BALB/C mice with pre-established P210 B-ALL leukemia were given allo-HSCT with or without iNKT cell addition. Initially, our data showed freshly isolated iNKT cells were rapidly cleared following transplantation. We therefore included lethally irradiated P210 loaded with α-Galactosylceramide (α-Galcer) as adjuvant, and were able to see robust expansion of iNKT cells in vitro and in vivo (>20% vs <1% in WT in BM and Liver). Additionally, we found that HSCT recipients that also received iNKT cells were able to fully clear bone marrow residing B-ALL cells by Day8, compared to less than half in control, suggesting an important role of iNKT cells for targeting bone marrow residing B-ALL cells to prevent relapse. Taken together, combination therapy of allogeneic HSCT with infusion of donor-type iNKT cells activated via irradiated α-Galcer-loaded host-type ALL represent a novel approach for preventing GVHD and augmenting GVL effect against ALL. Disclosures No relevant conflicts of interest to declare.

Methylation of H3K27 and H3K4 in key gene promoter regions of thymus in RA mice is involved in the abnormal development and differentiation of iNKT cells.

Epigenetic modifications have been shown to be important for immune cell differentiation by regulating gene transcription. However, the role and mechanism of histone methylation in the development and differentiation of iNKT cells in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) mice have yet to be deciphered. The DBA/1 mouse RA model was established by using a modified GPI mixed peptide. We demonstrated that total peripheral blood, thymus, and spleen iNKT cells in RA mice decreased significantly, while iNKT1 in the thymus and spleen was increased significantly. PLZF protein and PLZF mRNA levels were significantly decreased in thymus DP T cells, while T-bet protein and mRNA were significantly increased in thymus iNKT cells. We found a marked accumulation in H3K27me3 around the promoter regions of the signature gene Zbtb16 in RA mice thymus DP T cells, and an accumulation of H3K4me3 around the promoters of the Tbx21 gene in iNKT cells. The expression levels of UTX in the thymus of RA mice were significantly reduced. The changes in the above indicators were particularly significant in the progressive phase of inflammation (11days after modeling) and the peak phase of inflammation (14days after modeling) in RA mice. Developmental and differentiation defects of iNKT cells in RA mice were associated with abnormal methylation levels (H3K27me3 and H3K4me3) in the promoters of key genes Zbtb16 (encoding PLZF) and Tbx21 (encoding T-bet). Decreased UTX of thymus histone demethylase levels resulted in the accumulation of H3K27me3 modification.

Ly9 (SLAMF3) receptor differentially regulates iNKT cell development and activation in mice.

Invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells develop into three subsets (NKT1, NKT2, and NKT17) expressing a distinct transcription factor profile, which regulates cytokine secretion upon activation. iNKT cell development in the thymus is modulated by signaling lymphocytic activation molecule family (SLAMF) receptors. In contrast to other SLAMF members, Ly9 (SLAMF3) is a non-redundant negative regulator of iNKT cell development. Here, we show that Ly9 influences iNKT cell lineage differentiation. Ly9-deficient mice on a BALB/c background contained a significantly expanded population of thymic NKT2 cells, while NKT1 cells were nearly absent in BALB/c.Ly9-/- thymus. Conversely, the number of peripheral NKT1 cells in BALB/c.Ly9-/- mice was comparable to that in wild-type mice, indicating that the homeostasis of the different iNKT cell subsets may have distinct requirements depending on their tissue localization. Importantly, Ly9 absence also promoted NKT2 cell differentiation in the NKT1-skewed C57BL/6 background. Furthermore, treatment of wild-type mice with an agonistic monoclonal antibody directed against Ly9 impaired IL-4 and IFN-γ production and reduced by half the number of spleen iNKT cells, with a significant decrease in the proportion of NKT2 cells. Thus, anti-Ly9 targeting could represent a novel therapeutic approach to modulate iNKT cell numbers and activation.

TLR4, 5, and 9 Agonists Inhibit Murine Airway Invariant Natural Killer T Cells in an IL-12-Dependent Manner

PurposeInvariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells may play an important role in the pathogenesis of asthma in mice and humans. Thus, an agent that modulates the function of iNKT cells may have therapeutic potential to control asthma. We hypothesized that lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-, flagellin-, or CpG-induced changes in the cytokine milieu may modify and even inhibit the function of airway iNKT cells in asthma.MethodsBecause increased α-galactosylceramide (GalCer)-induced airway hyperreactivity (AHR) reflects the presence of airway iNKT cells, α-GalCer-induced AHR, as well as inflammatory cells and cytokines in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid, were determined 24 hours after in vivo treatment with LPS, flagellin, or CpG in naïve BALB/c mice. Intracellular IL-4 and IFN-γ were measured in spleen iNKT cells after in vitro treatment with LPS, flagellin, or CpG. A role for IL-12 following the treatments was determined.ResultsIntranasal administration of LPS, flagellin, or CpG reduced development of α-GalCer-induced AHR, eosinophilic airway inflammation, and Th1 and Th2 cytokine responses in BAL fluid, while producing IL-12 in BAL fluid. Intraperitoneal administration of IL-12 mAb blocked the suppressive effect of LPS, flagellin, or CpG. In vitro treatment with LPS, flagellin, or CpG reduced production of IL-4 and IFN-γ from α-GalCer-stimulated spleen iNKT cells; these effects were ameliorated by addition of anti-IL-12 mAb.ConclusionsTLR4, 5, and 9 agonists may suppress the function of airway and spleen iNKT cells via IL-12-dependent mechanisms. Anergy of iNKT cells by IL-12 might play a role in suppression by these TLR agonists.

Analysis of the CD1 Antigen Presenting System in Humanized SCID Mice

CD1 molecules are glycoproteins that present lipids and glycolipids for recognition by T cells. CD1-dependent immune activation has been implicated in a wide range of immune responses, however, our understanding of the role of this pathway in human disease remains limited because of species differences between humans and other mammals: whereas humans express five different CD1 gene products (CD1a, CD1b, CD1c, CD1d, and CD1e), muroid rodents express only one CD1 isoform (CD1d). Here we report that immune deficient mice engrafted with human fetal thymus, liver, and CD34+ hematopoietic stem cells develop a functional human CD1 compartment. CD1a, b, c, and d isoforms were highly expressed by human thymocytes, and CD1a+ cells with a dendritic morphology were present in the thymic medulla. CD1+ cells were also detected in spleen, liver, and lungs. APCs from spleen and liver were capable of presenting bacterial glycolipids to human CD1-restricted T cells. ELISpot analyses of splenocytes demonstrated the presence of CD1-reactive IFN-γ producing cells. CD1d tetramer staining directly identified human iNKT cells in spleen and liver samples from engrafted mice, and injection of the glycolipid antigen α-GalCer resulted in rapid elevation of human IFN-γ and IL-4 levels in the blood indicating that the human iNKT cells are biologically active in vivo. Together, these results demonstrate that the human CD1 system is present and functionally competent in this humanized mouse model. Thus, this system provides a new opportunity to study the role of CD1-related immune activation in infections to human-specific pathogens.

Plasticity of Invariant NKT Cell Regulation of Allergic Airway Disease Is Dependent on IFN-γ Production

Invariant NKT cells (iNKT cells) play a pivotal role in the development of allergen-induced airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) and inflammation. However, it is unclear what role they play in the initiation (sensitization) phase as opposed to the effector (challenge) phase. The role of iNKT cells during sensitization was examined by determining the response of mice to intratracheal transfer of OVA-pulsed or OVA-alpha-galactosylceramide (OVA/alphaGalCer)-pulsed bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) prior to allergen challenge. Wild-type (WT) recipients of OVA-BMDCs developed AHR, increased airway eosinophilia, and increased levels of Th2 cytokines in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, whereas recipients of OVA/alphaGalCer BMDCs failed to do so. In contrast, transfer of these same OVA/alphaGalCer BMDCs into IFN-gamma-deficient (IFN-gamma(-/-)) mice enhanced the development of these lung allergic responses, which was reversed by exogenous IFN-gamma treatment following OVA-BMDC transfer. Further, Jalpha18-deficient recipients, which lack iNKT cells, developed the full spectrum of lung allergic responses following reconstitution with highly purified WT liver or spleen iNKT cells and transfer of OVA-BMDCs, whereas reconstituted recipients of OVA/alphaGalCer BMDCs failed to do so. Transfer of iNKT cells from IFN-gamma(-/-) mice restored the development of these responses in Jalpha18-deficient recipients following OVA-BMDC transfer; the responses were enhanced following OVA/alphaGalCer BMDC transfer. iNKT cells from these IFN-gamma(-/-) mice produced higher levels of IL-13 in vitro compared with WT iNKT cells. These data identify IFN-gamma as playing a critical role in dictating the consequences of iNKT cell activation in the initiation phase of the development of AHR and airway inflammation.

NKT cells mediate pulmonary inflammation and dysfunction in murine sickle cell disease through production of IFN-γ and CXCR3 chemokines

AbstractIschemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) triggers an inflammatory cascade that is initiated by the activation of CD1d-restricted iNKT cells. In sickle cell disease (SCD), misshapen erythrocytes evoke repeated transient bouts of microvascular IRI. Compared with C57BL/6 controls, NY1DD mice have more numerous and activated (CD69+, interferon-γ+ [IFN-γ+]) lung, liver, and spleen iNKT cells that are hyperresponsive to hypoxia/reoxygenation. NY1DD mice have increased pulmonary levels of IFN-γ, IFN-γ–inducible chemokines (CXCL9, CXCL10), and elevated numbers of lymphocytes expressing the chemokine receptor CXCR3. Treating NY1DD mice with anti-CD1d antibody to inhibit iNKT cell activation reverses baseline pulmonary dysfunction manifested as elevated vascular permeability, decreased arterial oxygen saturation, and increased numbers of activated leukocytes. Anti-CD1d antibodies decrease pulmonary levels of IFN-γ and CXCR3 chemokines. Neutralization of CXCR3 receptors ameliorates pulmonary dysfunction. Crossing NY1DD to lymphocyte-deficient Rag1−/− mice decreases pulmonary dysfunction. This is counteracted by the adoptive transfer of 1 million NKT cells. Like mice, people with SCD have increased numbers of activated circulating iNKT cells expressing CXCR3. Together, these data indicate that iNKT cells play a pivotal role in sustaining inflammation in SCD mice by a pathway involving IFN-γ and production of chemotactic CXCR3 chemokines and that this mechanism may translate to human disease.

NKT activation together with blockade of PD-L1 pathway lead to enhanced tumor responses (40.32)

Abstract Invariant NKT cells (iNKT cells) are a unique population of lymphocytes that have a biased TCR gene expression, are restriction by CD1d molecules, and rapidly produce a spectrum of cytokines following activation. Various studies have shown that positive costimulatory pathways can influence the activation of iNKT cells. However, little is understood about the regulation of NKT cells by negative costimulatory pathways. Here we show that PD-L1 and PD-1. but not PD-L2, are expressed on iNKT cells in spleen, liver and thymus. In vivo activation with α-GalCer lead to increased cytokine production and expansion of iNKT cells in the absence of the PD-L1 pathway. To study whether PD-L1 deficiency on NKT cells would affect antigen specific T cell responses we utilized CD8+ OT-1 OVA transgenic T cells. α-GalCer enhanced the expansion and cytokine production of OT-1 T cells after adoptive transfer into wild type recipients. However, this expansion was significantly augmented when OT-1 T cells were adoptively transferred into PD-L1-/- recipients. In a B16 melanoma metastasis model, there was an increased clearance of lung nodules when PD-L1-/- recipients were given dendritic cells loaded with α-GalCer and TRP-2 peptide. These data demonstrate that blocking PDL1:PD-1 interactions between NKT cells and cells of the adaptive immune system are important in mounting an effective anti-tumor immune response.