Initial Antibiotic Choice Research Articles

Impact of Antibiotic Resistance in Gram‐Negative Bacilli on Empirical and Definitive Antibiotic Therapy

Serious infections with gram-negative pathogens continue to be associated with considerable mortality. Increasing antibiotic resistance in organisms such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii, and Klebsiella pneumoniae is contributing to difficulties with choosing antibiotics to prescribe for these infections. Optimization of therapy against these organisms starts with the initial empirical antibiotic choice. Surveillance data and hospital or unit antibiograms may inform this decision, although individualization of the initial regimen on the basis of prior antibiotic use and prior isolation of resistant pathogens may be more important. Combinations of antibiotics are often required empirically, and "combination antibiograms" may need to be developed for this purpose. Preliminary data suggest that extending the time over which a dose of antipseudomonal beta-lactam antibiotics is infused may improve clinical outcomes; however, this idea remains to be confirmed in randomized trials. The role of direct susceptibility testing in aiding more-rapid initiation of appropriate antibiotic therapy is also being studied. When identification and susceptibility testing is complete, the antibiotic regimen for infections due to gram-negative pathogens can be "fine tuned." On some occasions, this fine tuning necessitates the introduction of "salvage" antibiotics, such as colistin or tigecycline; on others, it necessitates de-escalation and early termination of therapy. The lack of new antibiotic options against gram-negative pathogens underscores the need for optimization of current therapies and prevention of the spread of these organisms.

Bacterial infective arthritis of the coxofemoral joint in dogs with hip dysplasia

The objective of this study was to describe seven cases of unilateral bacterial infective coxarthritis from a total of 19 cases of bacterial infective arthritis (BIA), presenting over a two year period. We recorded the history, clinical signs, diagnostic process, treatment and clinical outcome in these cases. The data were obtained from medical records, review of the radiographs, and telephone follow-up with the owners. All of the dogs in this study had severe chronic osteoarthritis secondary to hip dysplasia, which caused periodic hind limb lameness. They were all admitted with severe acute hind-limb lameness. Pelvic radiographs were performed under general anaesthesia shortly after presentation, followed immediately by arthrocentesis of the affected joint. The synovial fluid was evaluated microscopically by direct smear and a sample was sent for culture and sensitivity. An attempt was not made to drain or lavage the affected joint during the course of treatment. The initial choice of antibiotics was empiric and subsequently modified, as required, based on the sensitivity results. Four of the dogs showed a rapid return to weight-bearing after the initiation of antibiotic treatment, and all of the patients returned to their pre-BIA level of function. Neither recurrent infections nor any adverse sequela requiring further intervention were reported by the owners on telephone follow-up.

Management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults

Objective: To revise the existing South African community-acquired pneumonia guideline in the light of the following factors: • Increasing antibiotic resistance • Introduction of new antibiotics • International trends based on evidence published since the previous guideline. • The main aim of the guideline is to recommend an initial choice of antibiotics in patients with community-acquired pneumonia encompassing the following subgroups: - Adults without co-morbid illness - The elderly and/or those with associated co-morbid illness, including patients with concomitant human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection - Patients with severe pneumonia

Impact of the More-Potent Antibiotics Quinupristin-Dalfopristin and Linezolid on Outcome Measure of Patients with Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococcus Bacteremia

The impact of antibiotic resistance on the clinical outcome of patients with vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) bacteremia remains unclear. There are limited data comparing patient outcomes during the early era of vancomycin resistance with the period of more-potent antibiotic availability. A retrospective review was conducted of 113 patients with VRE bacteremia at a single institution from August 1993 to September 2005. Patients were assigned to a group on the basis of initial antibiotic choice for treatment of VRE (linezolid, quinupristin-dalfopristin, or combinations of other agents, before newer options were available). Outcome measurements were examined for the initial episode of VRE bacteremia, and multiple logistic regression analysis was performed to compare group outcomes. Overall mortality was 37.2% (42 of 113 patients). VRE bacteremia caused or significantly contributed to death in 29 (69%) of 42 patients. Seventy-one patients were initially treated with linezolid, 20 with quinupristin-dalfopristin, and 22 with combinations of other agents. Univariate analysis indicated significantly more deaths in the quinupristin-dalfopristin group (odds ratio, 5.45; 95% confidence interval, 1.89-15.9) and in the other-agents group (odds ratio, 2.94; 95% confidence interval, 1.09-7.94) than in the linezolid group. However, after adjustment for severity of illness, treatment group was not a significant independent factor. Despite the development of antimicrobial agents with greater potency against VRE, a significant change in clinical outcome was not observed. This suggests that vancomycin resistance does not significantly influence mortality and points to the continued need for prospective, randomized clinical trials.

Management of Community-acquired Pneumonia in Adults

To revise the existing South African community-acquired pneumonia guideline in the light of the following factors: * Increasing antibiotic resistance * Introduction of new antibiotics * International trends based on evidence published since the previous guideline. The main aim of the guideline is to recommend an initial choice of antibiotics in patients with community-acquired pneumonia encompassing the following subgroups: * Adults without co-morbid illness * The elderly and/or those with associated co-morbid illness, including patients with concomitant human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, and * Patients with severe pneumonia. Studies comparing patient outcome obtained with the various treatment regimens have been reviewed. The choice of antibiotic is based on the most commonly isolated pathogens, with cost as a consideration. The empiric antibiotic therapy covers all commonly encountered organisms in patients with community-acquired pneumonia and is likely to achieve the best prognosis. Working group of clinicians and clinical microbiologists, following detailed literature review, particularly of studies performed in South Africa. Benefits, harms and costs. The guideline pays particular attention to cost-effectiveness in South Africa and promotes rational antibiotic prescribing with the aim of limiting emergence of antibiotic resistance. These include details of likely pathogens, an appropriate diagnostic approach, indicators of severity of illness, need for hospitalisation and antibiotic treatment options. The guideline was updated by a working group of the South African Thoracic Society, which included members of the Critical Care Society of Southern Africa, and the Federation of Infectious Diseases Societies of Southern Africa. Reference was made to the recently updated international guidelines from the UK, Europe, Canada and the USA. The guideline is endorsed by the South African Thoracic Society, the Federation of Infectious Diseases Societies of Southern Africa, and the Critical Care Society of Southern Africa.

What Would Pediatric Infectious Disease Consultants Recommend for Management of Culture-Negative Acute Hematogenous Osteomyelitis?

To assess the opinion of pediatric infectious disease (PID) specialists regarding the management of culture-negative acute hematogenous osteomyelitis. A questionnaire that included a hypothetical case scenario of a 4-year-old boy with culture-negative osteomyelitis was distributed via a Web-based system to PID specialists across the United States. Of 481 eligible participants surveyed, 147 (31%) responded. For initial therapy of osteomyelitis, 37% of respondents chose a beta-lactam, 24% chose clindamycin, 10% chose vancomycin as the sole therapy, and 29% chose a combination of these. The initial choice of antibiotics was correlated with the reported incidence of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA) in the institution (P < 0.01). In areas where the prevalence of CA-MRSA was intermediate (between 25% and 50%), the choice of antibiotics was more heterogeneous. For change from intravenous to oral therapy, approximately 70% of respondents would change to oral therapy sooner than 3 weeks depending on clinical, laboratory, and social factors. After significant clinical and laboratory (sedimentation rate and C-reactive protein) improvements, most respondents (69%) chose to treat for a total duration (intravenous and oral) of 3 to 4 weeks. This study illustrates that the empiric choice of antibiotics for treatment of acute hematogenous osteomyelitis was driven by the local prevalence of CA-MRSA. When the prevalence of CA-MRSA was intermediate, the recommendations for management of bone infections were more heterogeneous. Clinical trials are needed to compare the effect of different management strategies on outcome, side effects, and costs. Level V.

Diabetic Foot Infections: Microbiology Made Modern?

Many aspects of managing foot infections in patients with diabetes have improved dramatically and are summarized in recently published guidelines (1–3). Yet, the basic methods of determining the causative microorganisms from these infections by culturing wound specimens have remained largely unchanged for over a century. Obtaining a proper wound culture specimen allows the clinician to define the pathogens involved and their antibiotic susceptibility. Unfortunately, results of cultures are generally not available for at least 2–3 days. Thus, most antibiotic therapy for infections is selected empirically (4). By the time culture results arrive, they are usually too late to influence the initial antibiotic choice. Many clinicians, therefore, feel compelled to select an antibiotic regimen that will cover most of the likely bacteria for all but the mildest infections, leading to an unnecessarily broad spectrum of therapy. This overprescribing increases the likelihood of adverse drug effects, drives antibiotic resistance, and increases the cost of treatment. To the contrary, some clinicians conclude that it is not worthwhile to obtain cultures, believing that the belated results are unhelpful. This approach, however, makes it difficult to properly select an alternative regimen if the patient is failing to respond to the initial agent(s). The increasing incidence of antibiotic-resistant pathogens as causes of diabetic foot infections makes selecting empiric antibiotic therapy more difficult. Those who treat these patients are well aware of the growing problem of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), which is now frequently acquired in the community and in various types …

Management of ventilator-associated pneumonia in a multidisciplinary intensive care unit: does trauma make a difference?

Antibiotic exposure and timing of pneumonia onset influence ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) isolates. The first goal of this investigation was to evaluate whether trauma also influences prevalence of microorganisms. A retrospective, single-center, observational cohort study. Multidisciplinary teaching ICU. Adult patients requiring mechanical ventilation identified as having VAP. Retrospective evaluation of a prospective manual database. VAP isolates in a multidisciplinary ICU documented by quantitative respiratory cultures and recorded in a 42-month database were compared, based on the presence or absence of trauma. Causative microorganisms were classified in four groups, based on mechanical ventilation duration (> 5 days), and previous antibiotic exposure. One hundred eighty-three patients developed 196 episodes of VAP (98 trauma). Methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA) was more frequent (34.5% vs. 11.5%, p < 0.01) in trauma, whereas methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) was more frequent (2% vs. 11.5%, p < 0.01) in non-trauma. No significant differences were found between trauma and non-trauma patients regarding prevalence of other microorganisms. In trauma patients, MSSA episodes were equally distributed between early- and late-onset VAP (51% vs. 49%), but no MRSA episode occurred in the early-onset group. Trauma influences the microbiology of pneumonia and it should be considered in the initial antibiotic regimen choice. Our data demonstrate that patients with trauma had a higher prevalence of MSSA, but the overall prevalence was sufficiently high to warrant S. aureus coverage for both groups. On the other hand, since no MRSA was isolated during the first 10 days of mechanical ventilation on trauma patients, MRSA coverage in these patients becomes necessary only 10 days after admission.

Impact of initial antibiotic choice and delayed appropriate treatment on the outcome of Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia

The study presented here investigated the impact of initial antibiotic choice (beta-lactams vs vancomycin) on the outcome of 342 patients with Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia (50.9% with methicillin-resistant isolates) encountered between 1 January 2002 and 30 June 2003. Initial antibiotics were inappropriate (beta-lactams) in 60 (34.5%) methicillin-resistant cases and suboptimal (vancomycin) in 62 (36.9%) methicillin-susceptible cases. Time to effective antibiotic therapy was longer in methicillin-resistant cases (25.5+/-28.6 vs 9.6+/-16.6 h; p<0.0005). All-cause in-hospital mortality was higher with inappropriate therapy (35.0 vs 20.9%; p=0.02). Initial vancomycin treatment was associated with a higher incidence of delayed clearance (>or=3 days) of methicillin-susceptible bacteremia (56.3 vs 37.0%; p=0.03). The results indicate inappropriate initial therapy is associated with higher in-hospital mortality and initial vancomycin may delay clearance.

Impact of initial antibiotic choice on mortality from pneumococcal pneumonia

To determine the impact of initial antimicrobial choice on 30-day mortality rate in patients with community-acquired pneumonia due to Streptococcus pneumoniae (CAP-SP), a prospective, observational study was conducted in 35 Spanish hospitals. A total of 638 patients with CAP-SP were identified. Antimicrobials were chosen by the attending physician. Patients were grouped into the following categories: beta-lactam monotherapy (n = 251), macrolide monotherapy (n = 37), beta-lactam plus macrolide (n = 198), levofloxacin alone/combination (n = 48), and other combinations (n = 104). The reference category was beta-lactam+macrolide. The 30-day survival probability was 84.9%. Using multivariate survival analysis, factors related to mortality in the entire population were: bilateral disease, suspected aspiration, shock, HIV infection, renal failure and pneumonia severity index (PSI) score Class IV versus I-III and categories V versus I-III. The association of beta-lactams+macrolides was not better than the use of beta-lactams alone. The current authors analysed the different groups of patients with significant mortality/morbidity: intensive care unit, PSI Class >III, renal failure, chronic lung disease and bacteraemia. Only in patients with PSI Class >III, who had undergone initial antimicrobial choice classified as other combinations, were associated with higher mortality. In conclusion, the current authors have not demonstrated an independent association between initial antimicrobial regimen and 30-day mortality in community-acquired pneumococcal pneumonia patients, except for those with a higher pneumonia severity index score.

C-reactive protein and cytokines in the diagnosis of neonatal sepsis

Accurate evaluation and correct treatment of neonates for possible sepsis still represent the most challenging clinical tasks. Early diagnosis of neonatal sepsis is largely based on the measurement of serum concentrations of different mediators of systemic inflammation, as well as, on a group of proteins named acute phase reactants. Among acute phase reactants, C-reactive protein (CRP) has been the most extensively used and investigated so far. This article reviews current knowledge on the synthesis, structure and biologic roles of CRP. Also, we present our original results in regard to the kinetics of serum CRP concentration during the first 24 hours of systemic injection, as well as different patterns of CRP dynamics associated with the initial choice of antibiotics, complications and the final outcome of systemic injection. Because CRP is specific, but somewhat late marker of neonatal sepsis, possible diagnostic use of other indicators of inflammation, i.e. interleukins 6 and 8, and procalcitonin during neonatal sepsis is also considered. The theoretical advantage of these early indicators is discussed in comparative analysis of the time of their activation after initial infections stimuli. In conclusion, we point to the diagnostic accuracy of serial measurements of serum CRP levels. As an alternative, simultaneous measurement of CRP and serum levels using a faster marker, such as procalcitonin, is recommended.

Quality of medical care during and shortly after acute care restructuring in Newfoundland and Labrador

To critically evaluate the quality of hospital medical care at the beginning, during and shortly after regionalization of health boards in Newfoundland and Labrador, and aggregation of hospitals in the St John's region. Retrospective chart audits for the years 1995/96, 1998/99 and 2000/01 (at the beginning, during and after restructuring) focused on outcomes in cardiology, respiratory medicine, neurology, nephrology, psychiatry, surgery and women's health programmes. Where possible, quality of care was judged on measurable outcomes in relation to published statements of likely optimal care. Comparisons were made over time within the St John's region, and separately for hospitals in the rest of the province. There was improvement in the use of thrombolytics and secondary measures post-myocardial infarction in both regions. Mortality and appropriateness of initial antibiotic choice for community-acquired pneumonia remained stable in both regions, with an improvement in admission appropriateness based on the severity in St John's. Aspects of stroke management (referral and time to see allied health professionals, imaging and discharge home) improved in both regions, while mortality remained stable. There was improvement in fistula rate, quality of dialysis and anaemia management in haemodialysis patients, and improvement in the peritoneal dialysis patient peritonitis rate. Readmission rate for schizophrenia remained unchanged. Stable mortality rates were observed for frequently performed surgical procedures. The post-coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) morbid event rate improved, although access to CABG was not optimal. Aggregation of acute care hospitals was feasible without attendant deterioration in patient care, and in some areas care improved. However, access to services continued to be a major problem in all regions.

Clinical resolution in patients with suspicion of ventilator-associated pneumonia: A cohort study comparing patients with and without acute respiratory distress syndrome*

To determine the pattern of resolution of classic infectious and respiratory variables in patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) and appropriate empirical therapy, depending on the presence of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). A secondary objective was to identify clinical variables that might be useful for monitoring response to therapy. Prospective, observational cohort study. Medical-surgical intensive care unit. Seventy-five episodes of VAP without ARDS were identified and compared with 20 episodes with ARDS at VAP onset. Six episodes were excluded due to in vitro resistance to the initial antibiotic choice and six due to death in the first 72 hrs. None. Resolution of fever, Pao2/Fio2 >250 mm Hg, and white blood cell count in episodes of VAP were present in 73.3%, 74.7%, and 53.3% of patients after 3 days of therapy. Indeed, >50% of episodes with the absence of ARDS presented resolution of fever and Pao2/Fio2 >250 within the first day of therapy. In contrast, resolution of radiologic opacities and clearance of secretions (median of 14 and 6 days of resolution) were late events. In patients with ARDS, resolution of fever remained the earliest variable. However, similar to Pao2/Fio2 250 and white blood cell count, fever showed a significantly worse pattern after 3 days of therapy: 45%, 15% and 25%, respectively. Radiologic resolution was an extremely poor indicator, being present in only 10% of ARDS patients after 15 days of follow-up. Failure to improve after 48 hrs of therapy was documented in 65% of ARDS patients and 14.7% of controls (p < .05). Measures of oxygenation and core temperature can help physicians to individualize and shorten the duration of antibiotic therapy in VAP episodes. ARDS patients with VAP take twice as long to resolve fever, whereas hypoxemia should be ignored in defining resolution in this subset.

EFFECTS OF HIGH-DOSE OF INTRAVENOUS IMMUNOGLOBULIN AND ANTIBIOTICS ON SURVIVAL FOR SEVERE SEPSIS UNDERGOING SURGERY

The objective of this study was to assess the impact on outcome of adjuvant therapy (high-dose of immunoglobulin [Ig] M-enriched intravenous Ig, IVIG) in intensive care unit (ICU) patients who underwent surgery by abdominal sepsis. This was a prospective, randomized, double-blind, controlled study set in the medical/surgical ICUs of seven teaching hospitals. Patients with severe sepsis and septic shock of intra-abdominal origin admitted to the ICU within 24 h after the onset of symptoms were included in the study. Polyvalent IgM-enriched Ig (Pentaglobin; IVIG group) at a dosage of 7 mL/kg/day for 5 days or an equal amount of 5% human albumin (control group) was randomized. Fifty-six patients were enrolled. The overall mortality rate was 37.5.%. Twenty patients had shock and 36 had severe sepsis (the mortality rate was 55.0% and 25.0%, respectively). In the intent-to-treat analysis, the mortality rate was reduced from 48.1% in patients treated with antibiotic (ATB) plus albumin to 27.5% (P = 0.06) for patients with ATB plus IVIG. The organ failure score (1.0 +/- 0.6 vs. 1.2 +/- 0.9), organ dysfunction score (1.7 +/- 1.1 vs. 1.8 +/- 1.0), and reoperation rate (17.2% vs. 29.6%) were not different between IVIG and control groups, respectively. Eight patients (14.3%) received inappropriate ATB initial therapy (IAT), and seven died (87.5%). IAT was the only variable independently associated with death (odds ratio, 19.4) in a logistic regression model. We conclude that IVIG administration, when used in combination with adequate antibiotics, improved the survival of surgical ICU patients with intra-abdominal sepsis. The initial choice of antibiotic has a dramatic impact on outcome.

Acinetobacter baumannii ventilator-associated pneumonia: epidemiological and clinical findings

To investigate prognostic factors and predictors of Acinetobacter baumannii isolation in ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP). We specifically analyzed these issues for imipenem-resistant episodes. All episodes of VAP are prospectively included in a database. Information about risk factors was retrieved retrospectively. Eighty-one patients exhibiting microbiologically documented VAP: 41 by A. baumannii (26 by imipenem-resistant) and 40 by other pathogens. The following variables were noted: underlying diseases, severity of illness, duration of mechanical ventilation and of hospitalization before VAP, prior episode of sepsis, previous antibiotic, corticosteroid use, type of nutrition, renal replacement therapy, reintubation, transportation out of the ICU, micro-organisms involved in VAP, concomitant bacteremia, clinical presentation, Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) scale on the day of diagnosis, and adequacy of empirical antibiotic therapy. Prior antibiotic use was found to be associated with development of VAP by A. baumannii (OR 14). Prior imipenem exposure was associated with the isolation of imipenem-resistant strains (OR 4). SOFA score on the day of diagnosis was the only predictor of in-hospital mortality (OR 1.22); adequacy of empirical antibiotic therapy was a protective factor (OR 0.067). Our results confirm that prior exposure to antimicrobials is an independent predictor for the development of A. baumannii VAP, the prognosis of which is similar to that of infections caused by other pathogens. This study highlights the importance of initial antibiotic choice in VAP or whatever cause.

Increasing fluoroquinolone use for the emergency department treatment of community-acquired pneumonia

Study objectives: Multiple guidelines exist for recommending initial antibiotic choice in the treatment of outpatient community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). Broad-spectrum macrolides, as well as doxycycline, are most often cited as appropriate first-line drugs. The guidelines also list fluoroquinolones as a possible initial antibiotic agent, but all discourage their use in otherwise healthy patients because of concerns about fluoroquinolone resistance. We determined the trends in antibiotic choice for treatment of CAP in the emergency department (ED) setting at a large academic medical center. Methods: A retrospective 3-year medical record review of consecutive patients discharged to home from the ED with a diagnosis of CAP was performed. CAP patients were included during the peak pneumonia season for 3 consecutive periods. Period 1 was October 1, 2000, to March 31, 2001; period 2 was October 1, 2001, to March 31, 2002; and period 3 was October 1, 2002, to March 31, 2003. A standardized form was completed by trained medical students and antibiotic choice was documented. Using the mean proportions for the 3 periods, pairwise comparisons between 2 periods for the 2 antibiotics (macrolides and fluoroquinolones) were performed using the Bonferroni adjustment to adjust for multiplicity. An interaction effect, antibiotic versus time, was included in the linear regression model. In addition, data were obtained from the microbiology laboratory concerning percentage of drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae . The proportions of susceptibility for 4 years (2000 to 2003) were compared. Pairwise comparisons were performed between 2 years for susceptibility using the Bonferroni adjustment to adjust for multiplicity. Results: The proportion of macrolide use significantly decreased (79% to 71% to 59%), and the proportion of fluoroquinolone use significantly increased (7% to 16% to 21%) during the 3 periods. The comparisons reached statistical significance when period 1 was compared with period 3. Macrolides and fluoroquinolones (in percentage use) are negatively correlated with Pearson's correlation coefficient (–.6981; P S pneumonaie. Conclusion: Within a 3-year period, fluoroquinolone use at this academic institution is increasing, whereas macrolide use is decreasing, a trend not in accordance with published guidelines. This trend is concerning considering the emergence of fluoroquinolone-resistant S pneumoniae.

Management of Community-Acquired Pneumonia

Management of Community-Acquired Pneumonia

Impact of Initial Antibiotic Choice on Clinical Outcomes in Community-Acquired Pneumonia: Analysis of a Hospital Claims-Made Database

Much controversy exists regarding the initial choice of antibiotics and selected outcomes for patients with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). The investigators analyzed a hospital claims-made database to assess the impact of initial antibiotic choice on 30-day mortality, total hospital costs, and hospital length of stay (LOS). Fine risk groups allowed for stratification for variations in the severity of illness. Patients were divided into five monotherapy groups (ie, ceftriaxone, "other" cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones, macrolides, or penicillins) and four groups that received dual therapy (ie, the agents listed above, except macrolides) plus macrolides. Patients also were stratified by age (ie, > 65 years of age and < 65 years of age). Severely ill patients were excluded. Overall, 44,814 persons met the criteria for inclusion. Among monotherapy patients, those who received macrolides had the least mortality but were the least ill. Patients who received dual therapy generally had shorter LOSs, lower total hospital charges, and decreased mortality compared with those who received monotherapy. Differences among dual-therapy regimens regarding outcomes studies were noted. Patients who were < 65 years of age had lower mortality rates, shorter LOSs, and lower hospital charges than did the more elderly patients. Within this group, those who received dual therapy had better outcomes than those who received monotherapy. We confirmed the value of dual therapy employing macrolides as a second agent in decreasing mortality from CAP, and we provided similar data regarding shorter LOSs and lower hospital charges. This appears to hold for a younger population. Differences among dual-therapy regimens (all employing macrolides) appear to exist and may be clinically relevant.

Therapy of ventilator-associated pneumonia. A patient-based approach based on the ten rules of "The Tarragona Strategy".

Therapy of ventilator-associated pneumonia should be a patient-based approach focusing on some key features are listed here: early initial therapy should be based on broad-spectrum antibiotics. Empirical treatment may be targeted after direct staining and should be modified according to good-quality quantitative microbiological findings, but should never be withdrawn in presence of negative direct staining or delayed until microbiological results are available. Courses of therapy should be given at high doses according to pharmacodynamic and tissue penetration properties. Prolonging antibiotic treatment does not prevent recurrences. Methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus should be expected in comatose patients. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus should not be expected in patients without previous antibiotic coverage. Pseudomonas aeruginosa should be covered with combination therapy. Antifungal therapy, even when Candida spp is isolated in significant concentrations, is not recommended for intubated nonneutropenic patients. Vancomycin, given at the standard doses and route of administration for the treatment of VAP caused by Gram-positive pathogens, is associated with poor outcomes. The choice of initial antibiotic should be based on the patient's previous antibiotic exposure and comorbidities, and local antibiotic susceptibility patterns, which should be updated regularly.

When Treating Staph, Anticipating Methicillin Resistance Saves Lives

Good clinical practice requires that patients with positive blood cultures be treated as soon as possible. However, sometimes the antibiotic susceptibilities of the infecting organism are not reflected in the initial choice of antibiotics, leading to a delay of several days in providing effective treatment. Findings from …