Homogeneous Concentration Research Articles

Probing depth-dependent inhomogeneous lithium concentration in thick LiNi0.88Co0.09Al0.03O2 cathodes for lithium-ion batteries

A high energy density is an essential requirement for commercial lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in electric vehicles (EVs) because it directly affects driving range. In addition, the fast charging performance of LIBs, which determines the charging time, is critical in the EV industry. A common approach to enhance the energy density of LIBs is to increase the active material loading by increasing the electrode thickness. However, there is limited scope for increasing the thickness of LIB electrodes in fast charging operations because the power density characteristics of LIB cells are degraded with increasing electrode thickness. Here, we estimate the lithium concentration distribution within thick LIB cathodes after charging/discharging by studying the work function distribution within the thick electrodes using Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM). First, to determine the relationship between the work function and lithium content in LIB cathodes, we measure the work function of thin LiNi0.88Co0.09Al0.03O2 (NCA) electrodes under various state-of-charge (SOC) conditions. From these measurements, it is demonstrated that the work function of the NCA electrodes is proportional to the SOC. The results suggest that the work function measurements obtained using KPFM can be used to estimate the Li concentration of NCA electrodes. Next, we perform depth-dependent KPFM measurements in thick NCA samples, which can provide depth profiles of the work function depending on the C-rate conditions. The work function shows a monotonic increase along the depth direction of the thick NCA cathodes, implying a depth-dependent inhomogeneous distribution of lithium concentrations.

Formation of nanoflowers: Au and Ni silicide cores surrounded by SiO x branches.

This work reports the formation of nanoflowers after annealing of Au/Ni bilayers deposited on SiO2/Si substrates. The cores of the nanoflowers consist of segregated Ni silicide and Au parts and are surrounded by SiO x branches. The SiO2 decomposition is activated at 1050 °C in a reducing atmosphere, and it can be enhanced more by Au compared to Ni. SiO gas from the decomposition of SiO2 and the active oxidation of Si is the source of Si for the growth of the SiO x branches of the nanoflowers. The concentration of SiO gas around the decomposition cavities is inhomogeneously distributed. Closer to the cavity border, the concentration of the Si sources is higher, and SiO x branches grow faster. Hence, nanoflowers present shorter and shorter branches as they are getting away from the border. However, such inhomogeneous SiO gas concentration is weakened in the sample with the highest Au concentration due to the strong ability of Au to enhance SiO2 decomposition, and nanoflowers with less difference in their branches can be observed across the whole sample.

CFD-DEM study of reactive gas-solid flows with cohesive particles in a high temperature polymerization fluidized bed

The cohesive particles are commonly encountered in high temperature polymerization fluidized bed reactors. However, detailed studies on the effect of cohesiveness on the hydrodynamics, heat transfer, and reaction characteristics in such reactors have been rarely reported. In this work, a CFD-DEM approach coupled with solid bridge force model and polymerization reaction kinetics model is established to simulate the reactive gas–solid flows with cohesive particles. The results demonstrate that cohesive particle agglomeration significantly increases the inhomogeneity of concentration and velocity fields, and hinders particle circulation. The hindered particle circulation further results in pronounced temperature inhomogeneity. Moreover, the local hot spots are readily formed in the agglomerates, which expand and deteriorate rapidly if not controlled promptly. Besides, how the cohesion model parameters, namely contact time and maximum cohesive force limitation, affect the onset temperature and the severity of particle agglomeration is revealed. The established model extends the particle-scale study of cohesive gas–solid flows to reactive systems.

Effect of Particle Thermophoresis on Convection of Magnetic

The effect of positive thermodiffusion of colloidal particles under convection of magneticfluids in connected vertical channels of 3.2 × 3.2 mm2 square cross-section and height 50 mm heated from below is analyzed. Below the critical Rayleigh number, particle thermophoresis in vertical generates unstable density stratification in fluid at rest. This leads to rapid bursts (~1 min) of concentration convection arising periodically (~4 h). Under developed convection, above the critical Rayleigh number particle thermophoresis in horizontal direction generates concentration inhomogeneities in the neighborhood of the channel walls and provokes convective flow instability that leads to the periodicchange (~1 h) in the direction of convective stream. The reasons of the oscillatory instability of mechanical equilibrium observed experimentally at positive sign of the Soret coefficient are discussed.

О конвективной устойчивости равновесия коллоидов и жидких бинарных смесей при положительной термодиффузии

The study investigates stability of the mechanical equilibrium of colloids and binary mixtures with positive thermal diffusion. Such problems are usually considered in the presence of a stationary con-centration distribution that arises due to thermal diffusion and (or) sedimentation. But in connected vertical channels of a square section of 3.2 × 3.2 mm with a height of 50 mm, a Hele-Shaw cell of 17 × 32 × 1.5 mm, and a flat layer with a height of 3mm when heated from below, the time it takes the concentration profile to become settled is extremely long and ranges from several days to several years. Therefore, the stability of the equilibrium was analyzed in the presence of increasing concen-tration inhomogeneities. This helped explain the experimental facts: 1) periodic (~ 4 hours) convec-tive bursts were observed in the magnetic fluid in channels below the critical Rayleigh number; 2) bursts with a period of ~ 0.5 hours were observed in the binary mixture in the Hele-Shaw cell. A formula for the period of bursts has been obtained, it gives results close to experimental ones.

Erratum to: Numerical Simulation of Shock-Wave Flows in a Gas Suspension with Inhomogeneous Concentration of the Dispersed Phase

Erratum to: Numerical Simulation of Shock-Wave Flows in a Gas Suspension with Inhomogeneous Concentration of the Dispersed Phase

Assessment of anisotropic transmembrane transport coefficient vector of cell-spheroid under inhomogeneous ion concentration distribution fields by electrical impedance tomography

The assessment method of anisotropic transmembrane transport coefficient vector P of a cell-spheroid under inhomogeneous ion concentration fields has been proposed by combining electrical impedance tomography (EIT) with an ion transport model to evaluate the anisotropic transmembrane transport of ions. An element Pi of P represents the transmembrane transport coefficient of the ith part of the cell membrane, which is assessed by the ion transport model from the average conductivity σ̃i of the ith extracellular sector reconstructed by EIT. Anisotropic factor H obtained from Pi is introduced, which represents the anisotropic transmembrane transport. To validate our methodology, the inhomogeneous ion concentration fields are generated by injecting two tonicity-different sucrose solutions (isotonic, hypotonic or hypertonic) from both sides of the cell-spheroid. As a result, the inhomogeneous ion concentration distribution due to the anisotropic transmembrane transport is successfully observed from the reconstructed image by EIT. The anisotropic factor H shows that H = 0.34 ± 0.24 in isotonic and hypertonic combination, H = 0.58 ± 0.15 in isotonic and hypotonic combination and H = 0.23 ± 0.06 in hypertonic and hypotonic combination, respectively. To verify the results obtained by our methodology, the fluorescence ratio F [-] of potassium ions around the cell-spheroid is observed under three combinations as same as the EIT measurement. F shows the anisotropic transmembrane transport with the same trend with the EIT results.

SEMI-EMPIRICAL MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF NITROGEN OXIDES EMISSION FROM LOW-EMISSION COMBUSTION CHAMBER AS A PART OF AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM OF AN AERO ENGINE

The article is devoted to the problem of automatic control of nitrogen oxide emissions from a low-emission combustion chamber (LECC) of a gas turbine engines' (GTE) new generation. Since the measurement technologies have not reached the required level of availability today, and the reliability of the automatic control system (ACS) depends on the validity of input information about the engine state, it is proposed to use the built - in predictive mathematical model of the LECC. The model equations are functions of the measured parameters. The compact design requirements and significant nonlinearity of combustion determine the stochastic nature of the LECC. Taking into account the strict ICAO standards for the emission of harmful substances, all this leads to a narrow range of stable operating modes, limited, on the one hand, by the normalized level of nitrogen oxide emissions, and, on the other hand, by unacceptable modes of flame blowout or vibration combustion (thermoacoustic vibrations). It is proposed to build into the ACS a hybrid model of the processes of generating harmful emissions in the MEKS GTE, consisting two parts. The first semi-empirical submodel combines the physical equation of Zeldovich and the generalized empirical coefficient calculating as a function of several critical variables. This submodel allows generating training samples for the second submodel in case of insufficient experimental data. The second submodel is based on a neural network. The article discusses the development and testing of the first submodel, which identification algorithm is based on the accepted hypothesis of the possibility of applying the principle of superposition in describing the interaction of diffusion and homogeneous flames. The algorithm is based on the Zeldovich equation, which makes it possible to determine the dependence of the generation of nitrogen oxides on the composition of the air-fuel mixture using the distribution function of the probability density of its pulsations depending on the value of the integral equivalent ratio φ, which characterizes the concentration of fuel in the mixture. A feature of the LECC is the presence in the flame tube of longitudinal acoustic waves, excited by the release of heat during combustion, having a frequency equal to natural frequency of the gas-air column. These acoustic waves are leading to fluctuations of φ and causing the harmonic fluctuations in the mathematical expectation of the mixture composition. In this work the numerical modeling of the distribution of the inhomogeneity and pulsation of the fuel-air mixture concentration over the area of the flames in the CFX package allowed to obtain the characteristics of the mathematical expectations and dispersion, as well as the natural frequencies of the object. The distribution functions of the probability density of pulsations of the mixture concentration for diffusion and homogeneous circuits are calculated analytically, taking into account the acoustics of the combustion chamber. The analysis of the effect of dispersion of acoustic waves on the form of the resulting probability density curves in diffusion and homogeneous plumes is carried out.

Study on the Microstructure Evolution and Mechanical Properties of Cu/Cu41Sn11/Cu Solder Joint During High-Temperature Aging

Abstract The paper focused on the changes in microstructure and mechanical properties of the full Cu41Sn11 solder joint (Cu/Cu41Sn11/Cu) during isothermal aging at 420 °C. It was motivated by potential applications of Cu–Sn intermetallic compounds (IMCs) solder joint in third-generation wide bandgap semiconductor devices. Experimental results revealed that the Cu41Sn11 phase was unstable under high-temperature conditions, the full Cu41Sn11 joint transformed into the full α(Cu) joint (Cu/α(Cu)/Cu) joint at 150 h during thermal aging. The formed α(Cu) phase was a Cu solid solution with inhomogeneous Sn atomic concentration, and its crystal structure and orientation were consistent with the original Cu plate. The conversion of the Cu41Sn11 to α(Cu) was accompanied by the formation of voids due to the volume shrinkage effect, predominantly near the middle of the solder joint interface. The α(Cu) solder joint presented a decrease in strength but an increase in strain rate sensitivity index compared to the Cu41Sn11 solder joint. Furthermore, the strain rate sensitivity index of α(Cu) and Cu41Sn11 is lower than that of ordinary Sn solders. After the shear test, the fractures that occurred in Cu41Sn11 grains were brittle, while the fractures in α(Cu) grains were ductile.

Review on the Experimental Characterization of Fracture in Active Material for Lithium-Ion Batteries

Nowadays, lithium-ion batteries are one of the most widespread energy storage systems, being extensively employed in a large variety of applications. A significant effort has been made to develop advanced materials and manufacturing processes with the aim of increasing batteries performance and preserving nominal properties with cycling. Nevertheless, mechanical degradation is still a significant damaging mechanism and the main cause of capacity fade and power loss. Lithium ions are inserted and extracted into the lattice structure of active materials during battery operation, causing the deformation of the crystalline lattice itself. Strain mismatches within the different areas of the active material caused by the inhomogeneous lithium-ions concentration induce mechanical stresses, leading ultimately to fracture, fatigue issues, and performance decay. Therefore, a deep understanding of the fracture mechanics in active materials is needed to meet the rapidly growing demand for next-generation batteries with long-term stability, high safety, excellent performance, and long life cycle. This review aims to analyze the fracture mechanics in the active material microstructure of electrodes due to battery operations from an experimental point of view. The main fracture mechanisms occurring in the common cathode and anode active materials are described, as well as the factors triggering and enhancing fracture. At first, the results obtained by performing microscopy and diffraction analysis in different materials are discussed to provides visual evidence of cracks and their relation with lattice structure. Then, fatigue phenomena due to crack growth as a function of the number of cycles are evaluated to assess the evolution of damage during the life cycle, and the effects of fracture on the battery performance are described. Finally, the literature gaps in the characterization of the fracture behavior of electrode active materials are highlighted to enhance the development of next-generation lithium-ion batteries.

Numerical study on the pulsating energy evolution in the cavitating flow around a mini Cascade

Cavitation is arguably a highly turbulent phenomenon in the liquid flow system. The cavitating flow around a mini cascade was carried out to investigate the turbulent characteristics and pulsation mechanisms. The results demonstrate that cavitation can significantly affect the turbulence velocity fluctuation and turbulence anisotropy, and intensively alter the local turbulent energy. To better provide an understanding of fundamental mechanisms dictating time-averaged pulsating energy, the inhomogeneity of the local concentration of pulsating energy at the vapor–liquid interface and the turbulent vortex core involves different fundamental mechanisms are expounded thoroughly through the ability of the time-averaged turbulent kinetic energy and the time-averaged pulsating entropy. The pulsating energy of cavitating flow around the mini cascade is basically obtained from the time-averaged flow, while the surrounding dissipative mechanisms are driven by the diffusion and dissipation terms. Further, the new definition of viscous diffusion term is derived based on the resolved turbulent kinetic energy, which can also clearly delineate the diffusion effect of turbulent kinetic energy produced by the molecule viscosity. Finally, the turbulent kinetic energy and pulsating enstrophy transport mechanisms inside the shedding vortex are revealed as significant characteristics of the interaction between vortex dynamics and turbulence–cavitation.

Influence of Soret effect on the pre-solidification state in the neopentylglycol-(D)camphor system during microgravity experiments

We present results from a combined experimental and numerical approach to estimate the impact of thermodiffusion in the liquid phase of the binary system neopentylglycol-(D)camphor (NPG-DC) during the pre-solidification holding period of experiments on the International Space Station (ISS) in reduced gravity conditions. The Soret coefficient ST, diffusion coefficient D and thermodiffusion coefficient DT have been measured by means of the optical beam deflection technique using mixtures close to the eutectic composition of the alloy (0.547 wt frac. NPG) in the composition range of 0.522–0.581 wt frac. NPG and at different temperatures above their respective liquidus temperatures. Numerically, we implemented a one-dimensional time-dependent thermodiffusion equation to describe the composition evolution during the holding pre-solidification phase in the NPG-DC alloy in a given temperature gradient. The validated model was then applied to the more complex case of spatially changing thermal gradients, which are expected in the experimental facility used onboard the ISS. Numerical simulations estimating a maximum effect of thermodiffusion showed a small but clear effect. Using the previously determined transport coefficients and a holding phase of 10 hours, a change of the NPG concentration of less than 7% of the initial composition was obtained for the given set-up. Even if the real thermodiffusion effect is expected to be smaller, this lateral inhomogeneity in concentration has to be taken into consideration in the microgravity experiments.

The fate of microplastics in estuary: A quantitative simulation approach

Microplastics pollution is an emerging environmental concern. However, there are almost no MPs numerical simulation studies in the Yangtze Estuary which is considered as the largest plastic export in the world and quantitative simulation is not carried out in the existing models. Therefore, completing quantitative simulation and exploring different patterns of MPs transport are the main objectives of this study. In addition, the concentration distribution and risk of MPs are also analyzed. Mass-Number method is proposed to quantitatively simulate microplastics concentration in Feb. and May with errors of less than 18%. Compared with sediment flocculation and settling transport, independent floating transport is more susceptible to surface currents resulting in increased beaching and more inhomogeneous concentration distribution. Meanwhile, under the influence of current, local topography and salt wedge, the MPs perform linear motion and clockwise spiral motion inside and outside the estuary and rapidly form a "hot spot" on the southeastern part of Chongming Island and 57% to 90% of MPs are beached or settled inside the estuary, especially on the north shore. Therefore, MPs risk in some sensitive targets should be concerned according to risk assessment results. Our results break the space-time limit and explore the fate of MPs in the Yangtze Estuary and provide new idea and concern of MPs numerical simulation.

Flame acceleration and onset of detonation in inhomogeneous mixture of hydrogen-air in an obstructed channel

Flame acceleration (FA) and deflagration-to-detonation transition (DDT) in combustible premixed gases is a complex process involving the flow and combustion phenomena. Practically, the combustible premixed gases are often inhomogeneous. The numerical study aims to explore the effects of different solid obstacle distribution patterns on the FA and DDT process in the inhomogeneous concentration field. Results show that the shape of detonation wave is arc-shaped due to the inhomogeneous hydrogen concentration, and the detonation initiation process can be classified into three types: i) detonation induced by the coupling of the flame surface and the high-pressure zone; ii) detonation induced by the interaction between flame surface and reflected shock wave; iii) detonation induced by the interaction between the oblique shock wave or Mach stem and obstacles in the flow field. Also, this study finds that the flame evolutions have experienced four velocity augmentation regions before the detonation initiation. Further, the rich hydrogen content in the aperture and the higher unilateral blockage ratio can both promote flame acceleration, and further shorten the run-up time of the DDT.

Ultrasonic characterization of the microstructure for cold sintered sodium molybdate

The Cold Sintering Process (CSP) is a novel manufacturing process that can create high-density metals, ceramics, and composite materials at significantly lower temperatures than conventional sintering. However, the microstructure of cold sintered materials can be more flawed and inhomogeneous than observed in conventionally sintered counterparts. Therefore, more information about the underlying densification mechanisms is required to reduce these flaws and promote CSP as an alternative industrial process. Ultrasonic testing provides a non-destructive approach to analyze the microstructure of these cold-sintered materials. In this presentation, longitudinal attenuation and wave speed are used to characterize sodium molybdate (Na2Mo2O7), a dielectric material. The concentration of inhomogeneities in the microstructure is found to increase proportionally to the heating rate, and with a larger thickness relative to diameter ratio. The densification is ultimately dependent on balancing the kinetics of the transient liquid phase as it undergoes pressure-solution precipitation and evaporation. Finally, the processing parameters are adjusted using information from ultrasonic characterization to optimize for a homogeneous microstructure, showing CSP as a promising lower energy alternative for sintered materials.

Relationship between atomic structure and excellent glass forming ability in Pd[formula omitted]Ni[formula omitted]Cu[formula omitted]P[formula omitted] metallic glass

To understand the relation of the glass-forming ability (GFA) to the local atomic configurations of a Pd42.5Ni7.5Cu30P20 (PNCP) metallic glass having the best GFA at present, the local structures were investigated by combining data obtained from anomalous X-ray scattering, X-ray and neutron diffraction, and applying reverse Monte Carlo modeling. By comparing the results of PNCP with Pd40Ni40P20 (PNP) and Pd40Cu40P20 (PCP) having a slightly and much worse GFAs, respectively, characteristic features were observed in the hyper-ordered atomic structures. Firstly, the concentration inhomogeneity of Ni/Cu in PNCP is larger than that of Ni in PNP and Cu in PCP. Secondly, a Voronoi tessellation showed that the fraction of pure icosahedral arrangements around the Cu atoms increases significantly in PNCP by adding icosahedral-preferred Ni atoms in PCP. Finally, a persistent homology (PH) analysis reveals the largest intermediate-size Cu PH rings in PNCP among the PH rings in these Pd-based BMGs. The structural heterogeneity for the excellent GFA of PNCP would be considered by an incompatible mixture of specific Pd-P configurations and icosahedral clusters around the secondary Ni and Cu metals.

A model of spatio-temporal regulation within biomaterials using DNA reaction-diffusion waveguides.

In multi-cellular organisms, cells and tissues coordinate biochemical signal propagation across length scales spanning micrometres to metres. Designing synthetic materials with similar capacities for coordinated signal propagation could allow these systems to adaptively regulate themselves across space and over time. Here, we combine ideas from cell signalling and electronic circuitry to propose a biochemical waveguide that transmits information in the form of a concentration of a DNA species on a directed path. The waveguide could be seamlessly integrated into a soft material because there is virtually no difference between the chemical or physical properties of the waveguide and the material it is embedded within. We propose the design of DNA strand displacement reactions to construct the system and, using reaction–diffusion models, identify kinetic and diffusive parameters that enable super-diffusive transport of DNA species via autocatalysis. Finally, to support experimental waveguide implementation, we propose a sink reaction and spatially inhomogeneous DNA concentrations that could mitigate the spurious amplification of an autocatalyst within the waveguide, allowing for controlled waveguide triggering. Chemical waveguides could facilitate the design of synthetic biomaterials with distributed sensing machinery integrated throughout their structure and enable coordinated self-regulating programmes triggered by changing environmental conditions.

Quantifying the impact of terrain–wind–governed close-effect on atmospheric polluted concentrations

Rapid global urbanization and industrial expansion have resulted in severe atmospheric pollution sceneries in the past decades. Apart from the direct influence of anthropogenic emissions, the coupling of terrain and meteorological parameters may be another critical natural factor that indirectly impacts the dynamic polluted levels by means of terrain, wind, and planetary boundary layer governed accumulation and dilution in the horizontal and vertical dimensions. The nature-governed influence from the coupling of terrain and wind on air polluted levels can be called Terrain–Wind Close Effect (TWCE). As a value to represent the height of a geographic location above or below a fixed reference point, elevation cannot directly reflect the influence of terrain closed effect on air pollution levels at the regional/national scale. Therefore, this study aims to propose a Terrain–Wind Close Index (TWCI), which is a quantified comprehensive parameter of Earth terrain and atmospheric conditions controlling synergistically the localized or inhomogeneous concentration of fine particulate matters, to represent the nature-governed ability of terrain coupled with wind and boundary layer to block the dilution of contaminants. Results show a positive correlation (about 0.65) between TWCI and air polluted levels monitored by ground sites from January 1 to December 31, 2020 in China, which quantitatively exhibits that most of the high polluted levels existed in high-TWCI regions. The performance of the comprehensive TWCI in terms of its descriptive power on spatial pattern of surface polluted levels is superior to the single elevation (about 0.30) that widely used in previous studies. Moreover, the TWCI makes the static terrain dynamical by considering the synergistic effects of terrain and variational meteorological parameters on surface polluted levels. The newly proposed TWCI model has a potential to be applied to the research involve regional pollution estimation, environmental capacity assessment, urban planning and development, and so on.

Discussion of Orientation and Performance of Crosslinked Ultrahigh-Molecular-Weight Polyethylene Used for Artificial Joints.

Previously, the orientation structure of ultrahigh-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) for artificial joints was considered to be unchanged after irradiation crosslinking. Therefore, much of the research related to the long-term failure of artificial joints has focused on material improvements. In this study, ultrasmall-angle X-ray scattering (USAXS) and the small/wide-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS-WAXS) combined technique reveal that the orientation structures of UHMWPE materials at all scales (nanoscale to microscale) are responsible for the long-term failure of artificial joints. To further illustrate the formation of these hierarchical oriented structures, a simple model is presented. In this model, first, the migration of free radicals plays a vital role, and the different steric hindrances in different directions directly lead to uneven migration behavior of free radicals. Second, the uneven migration of free radicals contributes to an inhomogeneous concentration of free radicals, thus resulting in observable crosslinking nonuniformities. Finally, all the hierarchical structural nonuniformities promote long-term failure of artificial joints after long-term wear.

Acoustic based assessment of cross-sectional concentration inhomogeneity at a suspended sediment monitoring station in a large river

Establishing and operating a harmonized sediment monitoring system along large rivers such as the Danube River is a challenging international task. As an element of such a system, a new monitoring site with state-of-the-art instrumentation is currently under development in the Upper-Hungarian section of the Danube River. The monitoring station will consist of a near-bank optical backscatter sensor and a horizontal acoustic Doppler current profiler (H-ADCP). As previous studies showed, the suspended sediment concentration (SSC) that is continuously measured with near-bank sensors can significantly enhance the temporal resolution of sediment transport monitoring. However, sediment plumes from tributary inflows upstream of the monitoring station can alter the detected near-bank concentrations, eventually biasing the sediment load estimation. Such an influence is likely in the cross-section of the planned monitoring station, therefore, a thorough preliminary analysis of the cross-sectional variation of the SSC was performed, based on expeditionary sediment measurement campaigns. Between 2018 and 2021 24 campaigns were carried out at different hydrological regimes, where physical sediment samplings together with fixed and moving boat ADCP measurements were performed. The cross-sectional variability of SSC and its influence on the sediment load estimations were assessed based on the moving boat ADCP measurements, after calibrating the backscatter signal with more than 500 physical samples. Based on the results, we identified different cross-sectional patterns of the SSC which is apparently governed by: (i) the actual hydrological situation considering both the main river and the tributary, and (ii) the local river morphology. Based on our findings, we suggested a correction method that accounts for the above effects, using which the near-bank SSC can be reliably converted into total suspended sediment load.