Information In Long-term Memory Research Articles

Lexical influences on nonword repetition

ABSTRACTThe present investigation explores the hypothesis that lexical information influences performance on nonword repetition tasks. The subjects – 30 normally achieving, school-aged boys – repeated multisyllabic nonword pairs, constructed to vary only in the lexicality of their constituent stressed syllables. Nonwords with stressed syllables corresponding to real words were repeated significantly more accurately than nonwords with non-lexical stressed syllables; stressed syllable lexicality primarily influenced repetition of the remaining unstressed syllables. Subsequent analyses revealed that the overwhelming majority of repetition errors operated to transform non-lexical sequences into real words, even when doing so violated both strong acoustic cues and articulatory ease. We conclude that lexical long-term memory information intrudes on nonword repetition performance, including stimuli that are within the limits of immediate memory span. These results suggest a number of caveats concerning the construction and interpretation of nonword repetition tasks and raise questions about the role of such tasks in assessing phonological working memory.

Sequential effects in lexical decision: tests of compound-cue retrieval theory.

According to compound-cue retrieval theories, responses in lexical decision are determined by a passive process that matches a compound of the items in short-term memory against all of the information in long-term memory. Because responses depend on other items in short-term memory in addition to the target item about which a lexical decision is required, compound-cue theories must predict sequential effects and priming effects. For example, a nonword preceding a target should slow responses to the target, and a prime word related to a target word can affect responses to the target even when another item intervenes between them. In this article, the results of 4 experiments are presented and sequential effects are shown to be in accord with compound-cue theory.

Functional anatomy of reaching and visuomotor learning: a positron emission tomography study.

The purpose of this study was to identify the functional cortical fields involved in reaching for targets in extrapersonal space, and to identify the specific fields representing visual target information in long-term memory. Ten healthy subjects were asked to learn the positions of seven circular targets that were repeatedly projected on a screen. The regional cerebral blood flow was measured with positron emission tomography during a rest state, at an early learning stage, at a later learning stage, and finally at 30 min after the course of learning had been completed. Mean rCBF change images for each task minus rest were calculated and fields of significant rCBF changes were identified. In all three task states, cortical fields were consistently activated in the left motor and premotor areas, the posterior part of the superior parietal lobule, and the right angular gyrus. When learning of the target positions had been achieved, additional fields appeared bilaterally in the posterior part of the superior parietal lobule, the right superior occipital gyrus, the left motor and premotor areas, the medial aspect of the superior frontal gyrus, the postcentral gyrus, the superior part of the cuneus, the inferior part of the angular gyrus, and the anterior part of the insula. The results indicate that there are at least two different types of functional fields in the posterior part of the superior parietal lobule; one is active during reaching for the targets when guided by internal representations of target positions; the other likely represents the storage sites of visual target information that is addressed in long-term memory.

Long-term memory in speech perception: Some new findings on talker variability, speaking rate and perceptual learning

This paper summarizes results from recent studies on the role of long-term memory in speech perception and spoken word recognition. Experiments on talker variability, speaking rate and perceptual learning provide strong evidence for implicit memory for very fine perceptual details of speech. Listeners apparently encode specific attributes of the talker's voice and speaking rate into long-term memory. Acoustic-phonetic variability does not appear to be “lost” as a result of phonetic analysis. The process of perceptual normalization in speech perception may therefore entail encoding of specific instances or “episodes” of the stimulus input and the operations used in perceptual analysis. These perceptual operations may reside in a “procedural memory” for a specific talker's voice. Taken together, the present set of findings are consistent with non-analytic accounts of perception, memory and cognition which emphasize the contribution of episodic or exemplar-based encoding in long-term memory. The results from these studies also raise questions about the traditional dissociation in phonetics between the linguistic and indexical properties of speech. Listeners apparently retain non-linguistic information in long-term memory about the speaker's gender, dialect, speaking rate and emotional state, attributes of speech signals that are not traditionally considered part of phonetic or lexical representations of words. These properties influence the initial perceptual encoding and retention of spoken words and therefore should play an important role in theoretical accounts of how the nervous system maps speech signals onto linguistic representations in the mental lexicon.

Speed of information processing in a calculating prodigy

Shakuntala Devi, one of the world's most prodigious mental calculators on record, past or present, is especially remarkable for the incredible speed with which she performs mental calculations on very large numbers. This rare phenomenon prompted the question of whether such exceptional performance dependes on the speed of elementary information processes. Devi's rather unexceptional reaction times on a battery of elementary cognitive tasks, which were compared with the mean RTs of college students and older adults on the same tasks, contrasts so markedly with her amazing speed of performing huge arithmetic calculations as to indicate that her skill with numbers must depend largely on the automatic encoding and retrieval of a wealth of declarative and procedural information in longterm memory rather than on any unusual basic capacities. Some kind of motivational factor that sustains enormous and prolonged interest and practice in a particular skill probably plays a larger part in extremely exceptional performance than does psychometric g or the speed of elementary information processes.

Prediction of dyslexia in kindergarten boys

This study followed 163 boys from kindergarten through fourth grade. A battery of neurospychological and preacademic tests and electrophysiological measures (BEAM) were administered in kindergarten, and reading tests at grade 4, in an attempt to delineate precursors of dyslexia. Three of the kindergarten tasks (giving sounds associated with letters, rapid naming of numbers, and finger localization) differentiated dyslexics from normal readers with 98 percent correct classification. The tasks primarily involve grapheme-phoneme associations, storage and retrieval of phonological information in long-term memory, and verbal labeling. Results are interpreted as confirming the role played by phonological processing tasks in the prediction of dyslexia. Preliminary BEAM results for visual evoked potential topography suggest a significant increment in the distribution of this potential in the left parietal and frontal region, and, for auditory evoked potential topography, a significant difference between the two groups in the right posterior hemisphere.

Generation and retrieval of general, specific and autobiographic images representing concrete nouns

The present research studies the distinction between general vs. specific vs. autobiographic images, concerning the specificity of image contents (single in autobiographic images, referring to many or all examples in general images), and the nature of the long-term memory information used for generating images. Four experiments confirmed the introspective evidence of this distinction. Subjects did not encounter difficulties in classifying evoked images into general vs. specific vs. autobiographic (experiment 1), nor in evoking these kinds of images upon request (experiments 2, 3, 4). Furthermore, the results of experiment 1 showed that, when generic instructions to form images were given, general images were the most common. Differences between kinds of images were found in the times necessary to evoke and study them (experiment 3) and reactivate them (experiment 2), since times were subject to a significant increase when passing from general to specific and autobiographic images. Specific images were rated as the most vivid, autobiographic images were the best recalled.

New theory of hippocampal function: associated rehearsal of multiplexed coded symbols.

A new theory of the role of the hippocampus in the selective storage of information in long-term memory is presented. This theory is based on the very recent discovery that neurons in the mammalian cerebral cortex transmit extremely precise copies of patterns of discharge in time when specific sensory inputs are presented, patterns that are interpreted to code for or symbolize specific items of information. The theory incorporates and provides an explanation for both the complex and unique internal structure of the hippocampal formation (the hippocampus and associated dentate gyrus) and the roles of many of the direct and indirect connections that structure makes with other brain structures. It also explains the deficits in learning that result from damage to the hippocampus and/or tracts that provide inputs to (or outputs from) this body as well as the role of the hippocampal formation in mapping the relationship of an individual to objects in its environment. The proposed enplanation is as follows. The hippocampal formation functions as a coordinated structure that, specifically, generates multiple copies of two different kinds of symbols (i.e., specific patterns of trains of nerve discharges in time). These two kinds of patterns are respectively provided by the entorhinal cortex through the perforant-alvear pathways and by the septal region, through the fornix, one of the two inputs to and the only output from the hippocampal formation. These two separate and different kinds of patterns are used to make multiplexed patterns that are ultimately transmitted to the cingulate gyrus and from there to other cortical memory storage locations. This transmission of amplified representations of different symbols occurs through the fornix. From there they are either transmitted to the mammilary bodies in the hypothalamus and from there to the anterior thalamic nuclei or, alternatively, directly to the anterior thalamic nuclei, bypassing the mammilary bodies. These thalamic nuclei in turn project the information to the cingulate gyrus of the cortex. The effect of the transmission of these mixtures of symbols is to cause the coordinated rehearsal and selective storage of relationships between separate inputs (specifically, patterns of discharge that symbolize different aspects of input) that are of probable significance to the survival of the system. The repeated presentation of such specific combinations of representations (symbols) then causes rehearsal-consolidation of these symbol associations as more permanent memories.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Estimating Human Cognitive Capacities: A Response to Landauer*

Cognitive ScienceVolume 12, Issue 2 p. 287-291 Free Access Estimating Human Cognitive Capacities: A Response to Landauer* Lawrence Hunter, Corresponding Author Lawrence Hunter Yale UniversityComputer Science Department, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520Search for more papers by this author Lawrence Hunter, Corresponding Author Lawrence Hunter Yale UniversityComputer Science Department, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520Search for more papers by this author First published: April 1988 https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog1202_5Citations: 4 † Landauer, T.K. (1986). How much do people remember? Some estimates of the quantity of learned information in long-term memory. Cognifive Science, 10, 477-493. AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume12, Issue2April 1988Pages 287-291 ReferencesRelatedInformation

The structured representation of information in long-term memory: A possible explanation for the accomplishments of “idiots savants”

Traditional accounts of the “idiot savant”—the development of a superior skill in otherwise subnormal individuals—are challenged through the examination of two cases, a pair of twins with extraordinary numerical ability but otherwise moronic, and Nadia, an autistic girl with extraordinary drawing ability. It is suggested that these phenomenal but particular skills are due to the functional reallocation of representational space in long-term memory. The hierarchical schematic organization of the mnemonic space, normally used for a range of conventional skills such as language, is employed instead for the hypertrophy of one-particular skill. What may appear to be feats of rapid calculation or artistic creativity actually represent automatic routings through long-term memory and translation into motor activity, possibly attributable to an unorthodox context of socialisation and social interaction. Evidence from such cases therefore proves to be inconclusive with regard to determining the nature of intelligence.

Models of memory: information processing.

A complete understanding of human memory will necessarily involve consideration of the active processes involved at the time of learning and of the organization and nature of representation of information in long-term memory. In addition to process and structure, it is important for theory to indicate the ways in which stimulus-driven and conceptually driven processes interact with each other in the learning situation. Not surprisingly, no existent theory provides a detailed specification of all of these factors. However, there are a number of more specific theories which are successful in illuminating some of the component structures and processes. The working memory model proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974) and modified subsequently has shown how the earlier theoretical construct of the short-term store should be replaced with the notion of working memory. In essence, working memory is a system which is used both to process information and to permit the transient storage of information. It comprises a number of conceptually distinct, but functionally interdependent components. So far as long-term memory is concerned, there is evidence of a number of different kinds of representation. Of particular importance is the distinction between declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge, a distinction which has received support from the study of amnesic patients. Kosslyn has argued for a distinction between literal representation and propositional representation, whereas Tulving has distinguished between episodic and semantic memories. While Tulving's distinction is perhaps the best known, there is increasing evidence that episodic and semantic memory differ primarily in content rather than in process, and so the distinction may be of less theoretical value than was originally believed.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Idiots savants — Thinking about remembering: A response to White

When we are presented with evidence of remarkable ability, as in the case of child prodigies for example, most of us are led to marvel at the gift of outstanding talent. When presented with evidence of extreme ability in individuals who are otherwise only marginally functional, as in the case of idiots savants, we may wonder whether nature has somehow been playing a cruel joke. What is the purpose or value of such ability? Does it do either the individual or the society any good ? Can the same processes which account for exceptional talent in intact individuals possibly also be operating in the case of the savant? The idiot savant represents a particularly odd packaging of talent one that should challenge commonly held notions of intelligence and ability. Yet there is something about the phenomenon of the savant which makes most of us uncomfortable. While it has received some attention in the literature on retardation and disability (Hill, 1974, 1975; Hoffman 8c Reeves, 1979; Horowitz, Kestenbaum, Person, & Jarvik, 1965; Morishima & Brown, 1977), it has been largely dismissed or ignored by those seeking to understand general intellectual functioning (but see Gardner, 1983). In his paper, “The structured representation of information in long-term memory: A possible explanation for the accomplishments of ‘idiots savants’,” White has taken the important step of seeking to fit the apparently anomalous skills of the savant into a framework designed to explain general cognitive functioning. While we would add some cautions, queries, and alternative paths to White’s proposed explanation, we believe that his effort to push general cognitive theory to account for a wider range of individuals and abilities is both provocative and important. White’s theoretical framework is an information-processing one: he seeks to understand savants’ abilities in terms of the idiosyncratic structuring of longterm memory stores. He details how two cases a pair of twins who displayed extreme numerical abilities, and an autistic artist might have organized large portions of long-term memory in the service of their unusual abilities.

Diazepam-induced amnesia: a neuropharmacological model of an "organic amnestic syndrome".

Diazepam has well-known amnestic properties. These effects, however, are selective for certain psychobiologically distinct memory functions. In this study, incremental doses of diazepam administered to 10 normal volunteers selectively impaired anterograde episodic memory and attention while totally sparing access to information in long-term memory (semantic or knowledge memory). This pattern of disruption mimics that seen in patients with organic amnesias and is in sharp contrast to the pattern seen in patients with dementia. These findings provide a framework for defining specific psychobiological determinants of cognitive failure.

How much do people remember? some estimates of the quantity of learned information in long-term memory

How much information from experience does a normal adult remember? The “functional information content” of human memory was estimated in several ways. The methods depend on measured rates of input and loss from very long- term memory and on analyses of the informational demands of human memory-based performance. Estimates ranged around 109 bits. It is speculated that the flexible and creative retrieval of facts by humans is a function of a large ratio of “hardware” capacity to functional storage requirements.

Tranquillising memories: A review of the effects of benzodiazepines on human memory

Studies from 1973 to 1985 of the effects of benzodiazepines on memory are summarised and reviewed. Anterograde amnesia appears a common effect of all benzodiazepines although its onset and duration vary with the particular benzodiazepine, its dose and route of administration. Memory impairments increase with task difficulty. There is some evidence that partial tolerance to amnesic effects develops with repeated doses of diazepam, but research with other benzodiazepines is inconclusive. Amnesia is in part a by-product of the sedative action of benzodiazepines, although these drugs may also have a specific effect of disrupting the consolidation of information in long-term memory. State-dependent effects are partial and relatively small. Methodological problems are discussed and attention is drawn to the lack of repeated dose studies, of studies with patient populations and with anxious volunteers.

Artificial intelligence. What is domain skill? Frames in information seeking

This article analyzes the role of domain skill in information seeking by individual human beings. It discusses the form and content of information in long-term memory (knowledge). Issues relating to acquisition and retrieval processes are surveyed. Special attention is paid to so-called feature analytic models or frame representations. It is argued that frame-organized knowledge has a constraining function on the availability of alternatives and that frames entail implicit knowledge. Lack of knowledge may have the consequence of either too many or no alternatives in short-term memory during information search A frame-system should be used as a conceptual tool for understanding cognitive processes during information seeking and decision making in computerized environments. The suggested framework is illustrated with empirical data from a psychological experiment with a textual data base.

Caffeine and copulatory experience: Interactive effects on social investigatory behavior

Three experiments test the interaction of prior copulatory experience with acute caffeine exposure on social investigatory behavior of the male Norway rat. At a dosage of 20 mg/kg or greater, caffeine counteracts a decrease in social investigation attributed to copulatory experience. At a 10 mg/kg dosage, caffeine increases social investigatory behavior prior to sexual exposure but has no comparable effect after sexual exposure. The results are interpreted as confirming a long-term effect of copulatory exposure on social investigatory behavior and as describing a dose-related interaction of caffeine exposure with prior copulatory experience. Social investigation is viewed as a preliminary component of sexual behavior and the decrease in social investigation following copulatory experience as a gain in efficiency of social discrimination. Acute caffeine exposure apparently interferes with access or retrieval of reference information in long-term memory.

An involvement of acetylcholine in object discrimination learning and memory in the marmoset

Five marmosets ( Callithrix jacchus) were tested, using a Wisconsin General Test Apparatus, on a series of junk object visual discrimination tasks, including new learning, 24-hr reversal and 24-hr retention. The effects of administering the cholinergic receptor blocking agent, scopolamine either just before or immediately after the new learning task, or just before the 24-hr reversal and retention tasks, were assessed. Results suggest that scopolamine impairs new learning and impairs the encoding of new information in long term memory. Some evidence of a mild retrieval deficit under scopolamine was also seen, while state-dependent effects were not apparent.

Specific reading retardation and working memory: a review.

Research into the memory deficit of retarded readers is examined within a working memory framework. Although much of the evidence in this area is confusing, there is fairly consistent evidence that reading retardation can be associated with a deficit in long-term storage of phonological information. This deficit may affect retarded readers' ability to utilize the articulatory loop, a short-term store which appears to play an important role in certain aspects of normal reading acquisition. On the other hand, there is fairly consistent evidence that retarded readers perform normally at storing non-verbal information and the semantic aspects of verbal information in long-term memory. Problems with current research strategies are discussed and suggestions for future research directions are made.

The importance of interval information in long-term memory for melodies.

The importance of interval information in long-term memory for melodies.