Information Gap Tasks Research Articles

Impact of task type and task complexity on negotiation of meaning in young learners of Chinese as a second language

Abstract Negotiation of meaning (NoM) has played a facilitative role in second language acquisition. However, the existing studies have primarily focused on adult English language learners. This study investigated the impact of task type and task complexity on NoM strategies among young learners of Chinese as a second language, an underexplored group. The participants were 110 students in Hong Kong aged 10–12, mainly from Pakistan, India, Philippines, and Nepal. They were asked to perform four tasks with different task types and levels of task complexity in Cantonese (the primary Chinese dialect spoken in Hong Kong). In terms of task type, the study found that required information exchange tasks (i.e., information gap tasks) produced significantly more clarification requests, confirmation checks, self-repetitions, and other repetitions in terms of total numbers and numbers per 100 Chinese characters than the optional exchange tasks (i.e., decision-making tasks). Complex tasks, on the other hand, elicited significantly more confirmation checks than simple tasks. These findings provide useful insights for designing tasks that can promote greater use of NoM strategies in classroom practice.

INFLUENCE OF TASK-TYPE AND PROFICIENCY ON COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES USED BY OMANI EFL LEARNERS

Communication strategies (CSs), an important component of strategic competence in foreign language learning, are techniques used by language learners to overcome the gap between their knowledge of the language and what they intend to communicate. An in-depth investigation into the factors that affect strategy use has clear implications for foreign language learning and teaching.This quantitative study examines the influence of proficiency and task-type on 27 CSs under three major strategy categories: Communication Flow Maintenance, Interactional, and Compensation. Participants are Omani EFL learners (n = 32) in the General Foundation Program (GFP). Participants performed three oral communication tasks in pairs (proficiency based) which were audio-video recorded and transcribed. The strategies used by each participant were quantified on an oral CSs checklist based on established taxonomies. The findings highlight that the overall use of CSs was more for the high proficiency group compared to the low proficiency group. Further, task characteristics had an influence on the use of CSs. Both proficiency groups used CSs least in the picture story task, more in the abstract art description task, and most in the information-gap task. Proficiency driven differences were noted in the use of individual strategies under each category, across tasks. The findings of this study have implications for designing communicative tasks as a tool to encourage the use of a wide gamut of communication strategies.

The Effectiveness of Opinion Gaps, Reasoning, and Information Tasks in Improving Speaking Skills

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of using the gap task of opinion, reasoning and information on speaking skills at the secondary school level. This study used a quasi-experimental research method involving 352 students. The three experimental groups received treatment with gaps in opinion, reasoning, and information gap tasks. All groups were examined for their initial speaking ability. The experimental group was given an intervention with gaps in opinion, reasoning, and information while the control group was given a traditional intervention to improve speaking ability. After the intervention had been carried out, all groups were examined for their speaking ability. Data analysis was performed using one-way ANOVA. The results indicated that the experimental groups showed a significant increase in speaking ability compared to students in the control group in the post-test phase. Intervention from giving the gap task of opinion, reasoning, and information is more effective for improving speaking skills. Three assignments of opinion gaps, reasoning, and information can improve students' speaking fluency. Of the three assignments, the information gap assignment provides the most significant contribution compared to the gap of opinion and reasoning tasks because the instructions in the information gap task are more varied and more intensive in encouraging students to interact in various contexts. Based on these findings, the researcher recommends designing materials by creating assignments that contain gaps in opinions, reasoning, and information to achieve learning objectives.

Повышение межъязыковой мобильности лингвокультурных знаний переводчика в процессе обучения иностранным языкам

The article examines the importance of interlingual mobility of the translator's linguacultural knowledge. We define it as the effectiveness of the functioning of connections between the translator's two languages and the speed of retrieval of lexical resources in one language in response to their equivalents in the other one. It is hypothesized that the interlingual mobility of the translator's linguacultural knowledge involves mapping of two linguistic systems onto each other and creation of interlingual connections, and effective functioning of these connections when the two languages are used in translation. Based on the psycholinguistic studies of the bilingual lexicon and code switching a number of factors influencing the effectiveness of the mobility of language knowledge were identified. They include: (i) the type and strength of connections between L1/L2 and between L1/L2 and the conceptual store; (ii) thematic dependence; (iii) “pointedness” of linguistic knowledge which is determined by the level of activation of language and the way language knowledge is stored in the mental lexicon. Research has shown that mobility is a characteristic feature of any active knowledge and requires focused effort and regular practice. Thus, it has been established that steps should be taken to develop interlingual mobility as part of teaching foreign languages to trainee translators. To achieve this aim, a complex of exercises was developed and tested as part of the English language course for third-year trainee translators. It was important to create the conditions similar to those in which translator's language knowledge functions and which are characterised by increased psychological and cognitive load. They include: (I) pre-determined linguistic means and direction of translation; (II) time constraints; (III) code switching. To this end, pushed output and information-gap tasks were included in the complex of exercises as they proved to be well suited for creating such conditions. The complex was aimed at: (1) strengthening the connections from L1 (Russian) to L2 (English) and between L2 and the conceptual store; (2) creating and practising interlingual connections within certain subject areas and between them; (3) developing students' ability to find communicatively equal correspondences in two languages; (4) developing students' ability to work under pressure and time constraints; (5) raising students' linguistic awareness. The results show: (A) an increase in the speed of retrieval of relevant lexical correspondences in L1/L2 within the topics studied; (B) more effective switching between L1 and L2; (C) students' psychological readiness for prompt retrieval of lexical resources in one language in response to their equivalents in the other one; (D) the decrease in the pace of speech. Students also reported: (a) reduced levels of stress; (b) better orientation in the tasks; (c) more conscious choice and use of linguistics resources; (d) higher awareness of gaps in their linguistic knowledge; (e) better understanding of their future profession. Overall, the obtained results testify to the effectiveness of the proposed approach.

The Role of Two-way Information-Gap Tasks on Students’ Motivation in Speaking Lessons in an ESP Context

Speaking is one of the most important skills in language education. However, it becomes more challenging when it is taught in second or foreign language classrooms. For that reason, the present study aims to investigate the role of two-way information gap tasks in students’ motivation in a speaking lesson in an ESP context. The participants are students in a two-year civil aviation program. The program aims to educate students to become qualified employees in the aviation sector. Therefore, students are taught how to communicate with foreign passengers in various situations, from providing a comfortable flight to dealing with flight emergencies using English. To that end, an open-ended motivation questionnaire adapted from Wallace and Leong (2020) was given to the students. The questionnaire inquired about the students’ feelings towards English and their perceptions about whether tasks motivated them or prepared them for their professions. Following the initial examination of the answers in the questionnaire, interview questions were formulated to enrich the data, and one-on-one interviews were conducted with the students on a voluntary basis. The data were analyzed, and the emerging themes were discussed in relation to the research questions formulated for the purposes of this study. The results revealed positive feelings and perceptions toward tasks. Most of the students found tasks motivating and fun. The most salient finding was the students’ perception of tasks as preparatory work for the future due to their instrumental motivation.

Dialogflow를 이용한 영어 교과서 연계 과제형 챗봇 개발

Objectives This study aimed to develop the task-based chatbots using elementary English textbooks in Dialogflow and discuss how it can be utilized within the task-based language teaching in the 2015 national English curriculum. Methods For this purpose, elementary English textbooks of 4th and 5th grade were chosen for writing scenarios between chatbots and learners and organizing the tasks. After this, chatbots were designed using Google’s API, Dialogflow. Results The results of this study are as follows: First, the preliminary task in the pre-task stage consists of unfocused task, ouput-based task, and information-gap task. Second, the main task in the task stage coincides to the preliminary task with further emphasis on a communicative activity. Third, exercise task in the post-task stage is made up of unfocused task, ouput-based task, and closed task. Conclusions This study will overcome the limitations of chatbots currently being used in practical setting. Through this study, chatbot-based foreign language learning is more stabilized than before in the future English education.

INFORMATION GAP TASKS: MOTIVATING AND ENCOURAGING TALK IN ENGLISH CLASSROOMS

This study examines how the use of information gap tasks in an English language classroom promoted the use of wh-questions among learners and increased interaction among learners. Literature shows that there is a tendency for language teachers to control the patterns of classroom communication as well as control talk in the classroom, thus limiting interaction and talk among learners. In second language acquisition, learners need to interact in the target language as studies show that learners need to learn to talk and also talk to learn (Tsui, 1995; 2017). Questioning is an important pathway for learners to learn as well as create a talk to acquire language. This paper examines the use of information gap tasks to encourage and promote interaction via wh-questions among learners in a primary vernacular public school in Malaysia. The study adopts a mixed method approach to datacollection where pre-and post-tests were used to analyze the effects of information-gap tasks on wh-questions use. Interaction analysis was also done to examine how learners from different levels of proficiency interacted during the information-gap tasks. The findings of this study revealed that the use of information-gap tasks improved the learners’ use of interrogative pronouns in terms of constructing questions to obtain their desired answers as well as encouraging interactions. Information-gap tasks are suitable tasks and tools to be used in the language classroom to encourage talk and interaction amongst learners to aid language development.

The Effects of Communication Strategy Training on Speaking Task Performance

This classroom study evaluates the effectiveness of pre-teaching communication strategies before learners undertake an information-gap speaking task. A convenience sample of 67 first-year students taking mandatory English classes at a private Japanese university was subject to one of two instructional approaches. The experimental group (n=37) undertook a pre-task communication strategy awareness activity coupled with a video modeling the ensuing information-gap task and communication strategies, while the control group (n=30) received no pre-task training. An analysis of speaking times, task worksheets and audio recordings of conversations indicated that the experimental group significantly outperformed the control group in task accuracy and communicative efficiency. In addition, a review of experimental group conversations indicated that most participants implemented the six targeted communicative strategies multiple times throughout the speaking task. Major implications for foreign language teachers include the value of pre-task modeling and communication strategies awareness-raising to help learners overcome disconnects in communicative tasks. Further, this study demonstrates the utility of information-gap speaking tasks for: (a) practicing communicative strategies; and (b) developing learners’ communicative competencies for real-world English as a lingua franca contexts.

The role of gaze in meaning negotiation episodes in video synchronous computer-mediated interactions

Abstract The outbreak of COVID-19 led to the replacement of many traditional classroom teaching and learning activities with online interactions through synchronous audio or video conferencing tools. Technically, the key difference between audio and video conferencing is the latter’s use of a webcam. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the webcam’s role in video synchronous computer-mediated communication (SCMC). Negotiation for meaning episodes, in which interlocutors try to resolve non-understanding through verbal interaction, were selected for analysis because they are widely believed to be helpful for second language acquisition. Specifically, this paper focuses on where interlocutors look during negotiated interactions in video SCMC and whether a statistical relationship exists between looking at a peer’s video image and successful meaning negotiation. Four dyads of English learners completed information gap tasks with potentially unknown words through learner–learner video SCMS interactions. Students’ multimodal performance was screen recorded for a gaze analysis and one-on-one interviews were conducted to confirm the students’ gaze directions. The results reveal a statistically significant positive relationship between the duration of one’s gaze at the peer’s video image and the number of successful meaning negotiation episodes in a dyad.

The Impact of Task Type on Iraqi EFL Learners' Use of Communication Strategies

This study is aimed at investigating the impact of task type on Iraqi EFL learners' use of communication strategies (henceforth CSs) when they communicate orally in English. To answer the research question and accomplish its aim, three oral tasks were employed: a one-way task (picture description task), and two two-way tasks (information-gap task and opinion-gap task). the tasks were carried out in the in-person, and under the researcher's monitoring. The sample of the study were (56) sophomores in the Department of English-College of Education University of Mosul, of the academic year 2020-2021. The results revealed that task type had an impact on the number of CSs used. It was found that opinion-gap task elicited the highest number of interactional, reduction, and time-gaining strategies, whereas picture description task elicited the highest number of self-solving strategies.

Engaging L2 Learners in Information-gap Tasks: How Task Type and Topic Familiarity Affect Learner Engagement

This study examines four learner engagement dimensions (behavioural, cognitive, emotional and social) in pedagogical task performance and provides insights into the effects of two task types (information-seeking and direction-giving) and topic familiarity on learner engagement in a semester-long English course. A total of 28 foreign language learners engaged in eight interactive tasks, and all played the roles of both information-receiver and information-provider alternately under familiar and unfamiliar conditions. Seven measures of engagement and an open-ended questionnaire were employed to understand the learners’ engagement in the tasks and their emotional responses to them. The results revealed that the information-providers produced more words and also spent more time on information-seeking tasks wherein they would exchange information than on direction-giving ones that required them to ask for and provide instructions or directions. This was the case for topics they were unfamiliar with; however, when they were faced with familiar topics, they produced significantly more words, spent more time, and spoke more elaboratively in direction-giving tasks. The information-seeking tasks elicited positive emotions, but the direction-giving tasks yielded mixed feelings, attaching positive emotions to familiar tasks but negative ones to unfamiliar tasks. The pedagogical implications of these findings are discussed.

A comparison of the affective affordances of a static and interactive VR system on learner FLA and motivation

This paper introduces a virtual reality (VR) system which was designed to promote English speaking proficiency as learners carry out collaborative information gap tasks. In a former study, a simpler system was developed to explore the effect of modality on learners’ foreign language anxiety (FLA) where results suggested that anxiety was statistically significantly lower in the VR environment compared to a voice and video chat system. However, of three key affordances—presence, interactivity, and autonomy—the previous system only focused on presence. The current system features an interactive component also. In this paper, we present results of a study which compared the two systems (presence-only versus interactive system) with the aim of answering the question: Does more-fully utilizing the affordances of VR lower or increase learners’ FLA? In a counterbalanced design, 30 participants (15 pairs) completed a spot-the-difference task in two different VR environments: static-VR (former system) and interactive-VR (current system). Results of a post-experimental questionnaire suggested that there was no difference in participants’ FLA for the two domains. However, a significant difference was found in terms of ease of communication and enjoyment which favored the interactive-VR mode. Additionally, compared to predictions that the interactive-VR task would be more cognitively demanding, it was considered simpler than the static-VR task. This suggests that using more of the affordances of VR by increasing interactivity further may make the embodied experience more life-like and therefore increase opportunities for learning. This paper introduces the system, implications for researchers and teachers, and future research directions.

Improving English Language Speaking Skills Using “Absyak” On-Line Learning Model for Second Semester in Higher Education

This study aims to improve students' speaking skills. The research sample consisted of 30 students (20 female students and 8 male students) all of whom were studying English, the majority of the sample were second semester students, the form of this study was to analyze (1) teaching and learning plans to speak through the task of information gaps that exist in "Absyak" on-line learning media websites, (2) the implementation of teaching speaking through structured tasks and information gaps with "absyak" on-line learning media websites, (3) teaching teaching evaluation systems through the task gap "absyak" information media website-based online learning, (4) improvement of student speaking using the information gap task on "absyak" website-based on-line learning. This is a classroom action research that takes place in 2 cycles. The subjects of the study were the second semester students of Surabaya Pharmacy Academy, Regular Class A consisting of 30 students in the academic year 2019/2020. Data collected by tests, observation notes and documentation. Data were analyzed descriptively qualitatively. The results showed that learning that was designed using the information gap technique with "absyak". Website-based online learning with cycle procedures. Cycle I results are still not optimal, then continue to the second cycle. In cycle II the results are maximum. Student activities increase every cycle II for learning, student activity, performance indicators, learning processes, completeness scores increase, decrease the number of unfinished and success indicators. Based on the results of research 11 which has been conducted 11 with 1 application of information gap techniques and "absyak" on-line learning website in learning Speaking in the second semester students of the Surabaya pharmacy academy that there is a significant increase in speaking skills from the results of learning achievements of cycle I and cycle II. This means that the students' speaking skills from the stages are increasingly increasing and succeeding well.

The Realization of Communication Tasks in Negotiating Meaning among EFL learners

People currently live at a time where the ability to speak English fluently has become a must for those who attempt to advance in certain fields. In classroom context however communication task is considered as a crucial element of English language teaching. As a strategy of communication, negotiation of meaning plays as a process through which the speakers go to clearly comprehend one another. The aims of this study are to analyze the realization of different communication tasks in negotiating meaning and to dig up those tasks in order to explain its impact on negotiation of meaning. A qualitative method is applied in this study where twenty undergraduate students majoring in English Language Education took part in it. The students were paired and assigned to perform five different communication tasks. The result showed that communication tasks had been effectively used as an opportunity for students to elicit the occurrences of negotiation of meaning in interactions. Moreover, it was discovered that each task type yielded different amount of negotiation. Information gap task came out as the most productive task in promoting negotiation of meaning among the other four with some negotiation of meaning strategies employed by students during negotiation; clarification request, confirmation checks, and comprehension checks. In conclusion, engaging students in such communication tasks leading to negotiating meaning helps them in developing their linguistic acknowledgement. It is due to the frequent use of negotiation of meaning strategies can contribute to language development of EFL learners in all level of proficiency.

Enfoque de aprendizaje basado en tareas en el desarrollo de la habilidad del habla

El propósito central del presente artículo científico fue determinar la influencia del Enfoque de aprendizaje basado en tareas que ayuda a fortalecer la capacidad de los estudiantes de habla del Centro de Idiomas de la Universidad Nacional de Chimborazo nivel 1. Para determinar la efectividad de este procedimiento, un Los exámenes previos y posteriores basados en el examen Cambridge KET - parte oral, se dieron a los estudiantes de primer nivel en el Centro de Idiomas de la Universidad Nacional de Chimborazo, clases 1K4 y 1E4 durante el período de octubre de 2018 a marzo de 2019. A Se diseñó un manual para el maestro que se utilizó durante el procedimiento en el aula. La interpretación de los datos se realizó antes y después del trabajo en el aula. El diseño del manual para el maestro se realizó en base a las tres etapas del proceso de una tarea: tarea previa, tarea propia y tarea posterior con el uso de varios tipos de tareas como individual, grupal, abierta, cerrada, y tareas de falta de información, teniendo en cuenta el desafío y el incentivo que cada tarea implica en el aumento de la habilidad de hablar de los alumnos. Una vez que el procedimiento ha finalizado con la implementación de la propuesta, el análisis de datos obtenido de la prueba previa y posterior se analizó mediante el uso de la prueba T-student. La conclusión muestra que, efectivamente, el Enfoque de aprendizaje basado en tareas tuvo una influencia positiva en el desarrollo de la producción oral de los estudiantes que mejoraron su capacidad de hablar. Por lo tanto, se recomienda que los maestros apliquen esta propuesta con el enfoque de aprendizaje basado en tareas para mejorar el rendimiento oral de los estudiantes.

The effect of feedback timing on L2 Spanish vocabulary acquisition in synchronous computer-mediated communication

The benefits of corrective feedback (CF) for second language (L2) learning are empirically attested, and multiple factors mediating CF effectiveness have been investigated. However, the timing of oral CF has received less attention given most research examines corrections provided immediately after an error. Delayed CF also warrants investigation; it occurs naturally in L2 classrooms and may be an appealing alternative in online learning contexts. Existing CF timing research shows either no significant differences between immediate and delayed CF, or advantages for immediate CF. To elucidate mixed findings, more CF timing studies are needed, especially those considering the effects of factors such as CF type, linguistic target and communication mode. Regarding communication mode, the effect of CF timing on errors made during text-based synchronous computer-mediated communication (SCMC), for instance, has received less attention. Examining text-based SCMC is important given its empirically attested benefits for L2 learning, and in some cases its advantage over face-to-face interaction for fostering CF effectiveness. Investigating the role of CF timing on errors made in text-based SCMC will contribute to efforts to maximize CF effectiveness in online learning environments, which are becoming increasingly common. In this study, 30 third-year learners of Spanish as a foreign language completed a one-way information-gap task with an interlocutor using Skype text-chat. On vocabulary errors, learners received either immediate or delayed error repetition plus recast, or no CF. Results revealed both CF groups significantly outperformed the comparison group on an oral picture description task, with no significant differences between immediate and delayed CF. Results may be due to the salience of the CF modality, type, and target.

Negotiation of meaning by mixed‐proficiency dyads in face‐to‐face and synchronous computer‐mediated communication

Few studies have compared the nature of negotiation of meaning across face‐to‐face (FTF) and synchronous computer‐mediated communication (SCMC) modes with mixed‐proficiency dyads. Such comparisons can help identify important strengths and weaknesses of each mode. Therefore, this study explored whether FTF and SCMC modes differ in terms of frequency and quality of negotiations of meaning in English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ interaction in mixed‐proficiency dyads. To this end, 32 EFL learners at elementary and upper‐intermediate levels were assigned to 16 mixed‐proficiency dyads to perform two information gap tasks (i.e., spot the differences task and jigsaw task). The participants’ interactions in both modes were coded based on Varonis and Gass's (1985) model of negotiation routines and Long's (1980) negotiation moves. The participants’ interactions in each mode were coded. The results show no significant differences between the frequency of negotiations in both modes. However, the results were controversial regarding the quality of negotiations. The quality of negotiation routines was examined by the number of indicators leading to modified output, which revealed that mode of interaction influenced the quality of negotiations and more modified output was produced in the SCMC mode than the FTF mode.

Oral Interaction in the EFL Classroom: The Effects of Instructional Focus and Task Type on Learner Affect

AbstractLittle is known about the effects of different instructional approaches on learner affect in oral interaction in the foreign language classroom. In a randomized experiment with Dutch pre‐vocational learners (N = 147), we evaluated the effects of 3 newly developed instructional programs for English as a foreign language (EFL). These programs differed in instructional focus (form‐focused vs. interaction strategies‐oriented) and type of task (pre‐scripted language tasks vs. information gap tasks). Multilevel analyses revealed that learners’ enjoyment of EFL oral interaction was not affected by instruction, that willingness to communicate (WTC) decreased over time, and that self‐confidence was positively affected by combining information gap tasks with interactional strategies instruction. In addition, regression analyses revealed that development in learners’ WTC and enjoyment did not have predictive value for achievement in EFL oral interaction, but that development in self‐confidence did explain achievement in EFL oral interaction in trained interactional contexts.

The impact of opinion-gap, reasoning-gap, and information-gap tasks on EFL learners’ speaking fluency

This study was an attempt to compare the effects of using opinion-gap, reasoning-gap, and information-gap tasks on Iranian EFL learners’ speaking fluency. To fulfill this objective, 140 intermediate EFL learners were selected and subsequently divided into three experimental groups including opinion-gap group, reasoning-gap group, and information-gap group, plus one control group. Afterward, the participants of all the groups were given a speaking pre-test, followed by the intervention, where the experimental groups received their specific treatments and the control group was exposed to the placebo. After the intervention ended, a speaking post-test was given to all the groups in order to measure the effects of the treatments on their speaking fluency. The results of one-way ANOVA indicated that the three experimental groups outperformed the control group on the post-test. In addition, the results uncovered that information-gap tasks were more effective than opinion-gap tasks and reasoning-gap tasks. In light of these findings, the researchers suggested some recommendations that are hoped to help syllabus designers, supervisors and English language teachers in developing teaching speaking skills.

Effects of the Computer Mediated Communication Interaction on Vocabulary Improvement

This study examined the effect of CMC interaction on Iranian EFL learners’ vocabulary improvement. The study was carried out on the basis of a comparative design and tried to compare CMC with face to-face interactions in the Iranian EFL learners in order to see whether the learners’ lexical knowledge improved by the CMC interaction. Participants of the study were advanced learners studying in a language institute. The Oxford placement test was used to determine the Iranian EFL learners’ proficiency level and ensure a homogeneous sample. Then, the participants were randomly assigned to one control group (face-to-face interaction) and one experimental group (CMC interaction) in order to compare the effect of CMC on the learners’ vocabulary improvement. The learners took a pre-test to select 12 target lexical items, treatment activity to perform information-gap task, and two immediate and delayed post-tests for assessing the acquisition of new lexical items. Yahoo Messenger was used to provide the chat communication. The research provided evidence that there was a significant relationship between the use of CMC interaction and face-to-face interaction with regard to improvement in the learners’ vocabulary learning. The result indicated that the learners’ vocabulary learning improved more in CMC interaction in comparison to face-to-face interaction. In addition, there was a significant difference in negotiating the meaning of new lexical items through CMC interaction in comparison to face-to-face interaction. Moreover, the results indicated that in terms of signal, the CMC interaction outperformed face-to-face group.