Informal Science Learning Research Articles

Disruptive moments as opportunities towards justice‐oriented pedagogical practice in Informal Science Learning

AbstractDespite the promise of Informal Science Learning settings (ISLs) in supporting youth science engagement in ways that value their experiences and communities, in practice, such opportunities are limited. While some ISLs promote more culturally relevant approaches to science engagement, many still reflect White supremacist and patriarchal worldviews in discourse and practice. In Research Practice Partnerships, we engaged eight ISL educators from two partner sites—a community center and science center, and youth from across their six programs. Using participatory ethnography we explore how educators' pedagogical practices supported youth in codeveloping more justice‐oriented ISL experiences—experiences which disrupt these dominant and oppressive norms. Our analysis pays attention, in particular, to those fraught moments when youth, in interaction with peers and educators, sought to disrupt their ISL experience in ways that centered and amplified their lives, hopes, and desires for being and learning in ISL and humanized the ISL learning community. Two kinds of pedagogical response patterns emerged that we report on in our findings: (1) collaborative critique and (2) critically being with each other towards new relationalities. We discuss how these two practices centered political and ethical dimensions of teaching and learning, fundamentally shifting power and relationalities towards new ISL possibilities. We also discuss how these practices involved leveraging specific moments to resee youths' activities in new ways, making visible how an ISL space limited opportunities for youth visibility of presence in science—a kind of pausing for justice.

Formal Learning in Informal Settings—Increased Physics Content Knowledge After a Science Centre Visit

Over the past 50 years, the prevalence of interactives in museums and science centres has increased dramatically, with interactive learning proliferating around the world. With a current estimated visitation of 300 million people each year, free-choice learning through museums and related venues has become a major source of human learning over the course of a lifetime. While many studies of visitor experience have examined positive changes in affective components of learning, fewer have examined whether specific scientific content knowledge is included in what is learnt. This research investigated gains in content knowledge through informal science learning. Three surveys were conducted at the Otago Museum’s science centre (Dunedin, New Zealand) with visitors eight years and older. The main component of the survey included a brief “formal” content knowledge assessment in the form of a pre-post multiple-choice test, with a focus on physics concepts illustrated in the science centre. Self-reported examples of science learned during the visit and selected items from the Modes of Learning Inventory complement the data. In the pre-post test, prior knowledge was age and gender dependent, with younger visitors and females getting significantly lower scores. Notwithstanding, visitors to the science centre had an overall average of 13% more correct answers in the test after visiting, independent of age and gender. A learning flow diagram was created to visualise learning in the presence or absence of interactivity. As expected, interactivity was found to increase learning.

Science Communication Through STEAM: Professional Development and Flipped Classrooms in the Digital Age

STEAM is the term given to a growing field of research and practice that integrates arts into traditional science, technology, engineering, and mathematics subjects. It is also the name of a science communication summer school that has evolved from a conventional in-person professional development opportunity to a blended informal science learning space with a flipped classroom approach. This article charts that development and includes perspectives from several science communicators who participated in in-person and online versions of the STEAM schools. The future of professional development in science communication is considered in light of the changes caused by the COVID-19 global pandemic.

Addressing the Ceiling Effect when Assessing STEM Out-Of-School Time Experiences

The aim of this paper is to describe an analytical approach for addressing the ceiling effect, a measurement limitation that affects research and evaluation efforts in informal STEM learning projects. The ceiling effect occurs when a large proportion of subjects begin a study with very high scores on the measured variable(s), such that participation in an educational experience cannot yield significant gains among these learners. This effect is widespread in informal science learning due to the self-selective nature of participation in these experiences, such that participants are already interested in and knowledgeable about the content area. When the ceiling effect is present, no conclusions can be drawn regarding the influence of an intervention on participants’ learning outcomes which could lead evaluators and funders to underestimate the positive effects of STEM programs. We discuss how the use of person-centered analytic approaches that segment samples in theory driven ways could help address the ceiling effect and provide an illustrative example using data from a recent evaluation of a STEM afterschool program.

How do I feel when I think about taking action? Hope and boredom, not anxiety and helplessness, predict intentions to take climate action

This research examines the extent to which four anticipatory emotional reactions (hope, anxiety, helplessness, and boredom) that arise when contemplating participating in public-sphere climate action predict intentions to engage in such action. In a large, geographically diverse sample of American adults visiting informal science learning centers (e.g., zoos, aquariums; N = 4964), stronger feelings of hope robustly predicted greater intentions to act (η2p = .22, a large effect); whereas stronger feelings of boredom robustly predicted decreased intention to act (η2p = .09, a medium effect). Both of these feelings had significantly more predictive power than political orientation (η2p = .04, a small-to-medium effect). The extent to which respondents felt anxious or helpless was not strongly correlated with their intentions to take action (η2ps ≈ 0.01, a small effect). These findings highlight the underexplored connection between how people feel when they contemplate taking climate action and their intentions to engage in such action.

How kids manage self-directed programming projects: Strategies and structures

ABSTRACT Background: A variety of self-directed opportunities to learn how to program are available to kids. But how do kids manage the motivational and cognitive challenges of creating projects? Methods: I examined this question in the context of kids working at home with the Scratch programming environment, based on thematic analysis of semi-structured interviews with 30 young creators discussing their project development processes. Findings: Ten strategies were central to kids’ progress with their projects: experimenting, planning, compromising, persevering, taking a break, asking for help, studying projects, adapting projects, creating with others, and helping others learn. Drawing on structuration theory, which frames an individual’s purposeful actions as connected to the internal and external structures to which they have access, I recast these kids’ strategies as connected to three key structures—personal interests, access to others, and time—with both enabling and inhibiting effects. Contribution: This study contributes to decades-long conversations about self-directed learning, offering a new view into the relationship between structure and self-direction by applying structuration theory to informal computer science learning. It offers a set of structures to consider when designing in support of self-direction, and acknowledges the prior problem-solving strategies that learners may bring to new areas of learning.

Competitive Games as Formative Assessment in Informal Science Learning: Improvement or Hindrance?

Competitive Games as Formative Assessment in Informal Science Learning: Improvement or Hindrance?

Embodied interactions in a science museum

AbstractInformal science learning environments, such as science museums, afford a variety of interactions, sense‐making processes, participation modes, and roles. Accumulating research advances our understanding of the cognitive and affective dimensions of science learning in informal environments, including the development of scientific sense‐making and identity. Despite the variety of opportunities informal settings uniquely afford for physical interactions (particularly relatively to classrooms) and the importance of physical interactions in these settings, research of embodied sense‐making and identification in informal settings is scant. In this study, we take a multimodal analysis approach to explore the ways by which visitors' bodies participate in their interactions with each other and with the exhibits at an Israeli science museum. We employ Goodwin's (2007) Embodied Participation Framework to micro‐analyze one episode of three visitors engaging with the Pulleys exhibit. The analysis points to the ways in which the physical design of the exhibit shaped the physical interaction. This interaction included embodied sense‐making that shaped and was shaped by the visitors' embodied positioning and identification. The study advances the understanding of interactions in science museums by directing attention to the physical interaction rather than focusing solely on verbal interaction and thereby highlighting the role of embodiment. It further illustrates the ways in which video‐based field studies coupled with a relevant multimodal analytic framework can explicate the interactional organization of engagement with objects in informal science learning environments.

Impact of Youth and Adult Informal Science Educators on Youth Learning at Exhibits

The impact of educators in informal science learning sites (ISLS) remains understudied from the perspective of youth visitors. Less is known about whether engagement with educators differs based on the age and gender of both visitor and educator. Here, visitors (5–17 years old) to six ISLS in the United States and United Kingdom (n = 488, female n = 244) were surveyed following an interaction with either a youth (14–18 -years old) or adult educator (19+ years old). For participants who reported lower interest in the exhibit, more educator engagement was related to greater self-reported learning. Younger children and adolescents reported more engagement with an adult educator, whereas engagement in middle childhood did not differ based on educator age. Participants in middle childhood showed a trend toward answering more conceptual knowledge questions correctly following an interaction with a youth educator. Together, these findings emphasize the promise of tailoring educator experiences to visitor demographics.

CONCEPTIONS OF LEARNING SCIENCE IN INFORMAL ENVIRONMENTS AMONG PRIMARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN MAINLAND CHINA

Previous studies on students’ conceptions of learning science (COLS) have focused primarily on formal environments. In these studies, students’ COLS were positively associated with their approaches to and outcomes for science learning. However, little research has been conducted to explore students’ conceptions of learning science in informal environments (COLSIE), despite its importance to students’ academic achievement. To fill this research gap, this study qualitatively and quantitatively explored Chinese primary school students’ COLSIE. First, in Study I, interview data gathered from a group of 80 students were analysed using the phenomenographic method, and ten hierarchical categories of COLSIE emerged (e.g., communicating and explaining). Based on these categories, a survey was developed and distributed to another group of 414 students in Study II. Exploratory factor analysis was conducted to validate the survey, which revealed nine factors matching the ten categories except for the initial categories of applying and understanding. This study also revealed the commonalities and uniqueness of COLSIE in comparison with students’ COLS in formal environments. The findings suggested that informal science learning experiences may strengthen students’ impressions of science practices. Science educators are encouraged to provide their students with opportunities to engage with science practices in informal environments. Keywords: primary school students; Mainland China; conceptions of learning science; informal environments; phenomenographic

Co-Designing for Equity in Informal Science Learning: A Proof-of-Concept Study of Design Principles

Informal science learning has great potential to engage diverse learners, but faces issues of persistent inequities. While systemic change is needed to address these issues at a structural level, there is also a need for practical tools to support the organisations and the educators who are working to engage audiences in informal science that is authentic, culturally responsive, interest driven and learner centered. This article presents a collection of design principles, generated through a design approach which actively involved informal science learners, practitioners and researchers from nineteen countries as contributors. We present the design approach adopted, and suggest that participatory design methods could play a role in supporting equity efforts in informal science learning since several of the educators involved in the process decided to adopt participatory methods in their own practice. We also present an overview of the design principles generated through this process, and discuss the application of an early draft of these in an authentic informal science education programme. By adopting and adapting these principles and approaches in their practices, educators can work towards creating equitable and transformative informal science learning environments and experiences.

Starting with Parents: Investigating a Multi-Generational, Media-Enhanced Approach to Support Informal Science Learning for Young Children

Starting with Parents: Investigating a Multi-Generational, Media-Enhanced Approach to Support Informal Science Learning for Young Children

Children's Gender Stereotypes in STEM Following a One-Shot Growth Mindset Intervention in a Science Museum.

Women are drastically underrepresented in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) and this underrepresentation has been linked to gender stereotypes and ability related beliefs. One way to remedy this may be to challenge male bias gender stereotypes around STEM by cultivating equitable beliefs that both female and male can excel in STEM. The present study implemented a growth mindset intervention to promote children’s incremental ability beliefs and investigate the relation between the intervention and children’s gender stereotypes in an informal science learning site. Participants (n = 143, female n = 77, male n = 66, 5–12-years-old, Mage = 8.6, SD = 1.7) were visitors to a science museum who took part in an interactive space science show. Participants who were exposed to a growth mindset intervention, compared to the participants in the control condition, reported significantly less gender stereotyping around STEM by reporting equitably in the stereotype awareness measure. Relatedly, participants in the control condition reported male bias gender stereotype in the stereotype awareness measure. Further, children between 5 and 8-years-old reported greater male bias stereotypes awareness and stereotype flexibility in space science compared to children between 9 and 12-years-old. Lastly, children demonstrated in-group bias in STEM ability. Male participants reported gender bias favoring males’ ability in stereotype flexibility and awareness measures, while female participants reported bias toward females’ ability in stereotype flexibility and awareness measures. These findings document the importance of a growth mindset intervention in buffering against STEM gender stereotyping amongst children, as well as the significant role a growth mindset intervention can play within an informal science learning site.

Measuring the long-term effects of informal science education experiences: challenges and potential solutions

Despite the fact that most science learning takes place outside of school, little is known about how engagement in informal science learning (ISL) experiences affects learners’ knowledge, skill development, interest, or identities over long periods of time. Although substantial ISL research has documented short-term outcomes such as the learning that takes place during a science center visit, research suggests that the genuine benefits of informal experiences are long-term transformations in learners as they pursue a “cascade” of experiences subsequent to the initial educational event. However, a number of major methodological challenges have limited longitudinal research projects investigating the long-term effects of ISL experiences. In this paper we identify and address four key issues surrounding the critical but challenging area of how to study and measure the long-term effects or impacts of ISL experiences: attribution, attrition, data collection, and analytic approaches. Our objective is to provide guidance to ISL researchers wishing to engage in long-term investigations of learner outcomes and to begin a dialogue about how best to address the numerous challenges involved in this work.

Understanding Parents' Roles in Children's Learning and Engagement in Informal Science Learning Sites.

Informal science learning sites (ISLS) create opportunities for children to learn about science outside of the classroom. This study analyzed children’s learning behaviors in ISLS using video recordings of family visits to a zoo, children’s museum, or aquarium. Furthermore, parent behaviors, features of the exhibits and the presence of an educator were also examined in relation to children’s behaviors. Participants included 63 children (60.3% female) and 44 parents in 31 family groups. Results showed that parents’ science questions and explanations were positively related to children observing the exhibit. Parents’ science explanations were also negatively related to children’s science explanations. Furthermore, children were more likely to provide science explanations when the exhibit was not interactive. Lastly there were no differences in children’s behaviors based on whether an educator was present at the exhibit. This study provides further evidence that children’s interactions with others and their environment are important for children’s learning behaviors.

Disrupting deficit narratives in informal science education: applying community cultural wealth theory to youth learning and engagement

Informal learning organizations such as museums, zoos, aquaria, gardens, and community-based organizations are often positioned as having programming that fill a void that may exist in the lives of youth participants. Often these institutions do not recognize the assets that youth gain from their own homes and communities and bring to bear in these programs and that contribute to their success and persistence in STEM and academics. In this paper, we problematize the prevailing deficit-oriented approach to STEM enrichment programs for youth who are underrepresented in STEM. Drawing from Tara Yosso’s theory of community cultural wealth, we describe the STEM identity and trajectories of three individuals as they navigated a long-term, museum-based, informal science learning program. Using Yosso’s framework, we describe the capital that youth brought into the program and the ways that they leveraged this capital as they moved from middle to high school, and into their postsecondary studies and early careers in the sciences. Furthermore, we describe how their existing capital intertwined with capital they gained from the museum program in ways that fostered persistence and achievement in science.

Science and Math Interest and Gender Stereotypes: The Role of Educator Gender in Informal Science Learning Sites.

Interest in science and math plays an important role in encouraging STEM motivation and career aspirations. This interest decreases for girls between late childhood and adolescence. Relatedly, positive mentoring experiences with female teachers can protect girls against losing interest. The present study examines whether visitors to informal science learning sites (ISLS; science centers, zoos, and aquariums) differ in their expressed science and math interest, as well as their science and math stereotypes following an interaction with either a male or female educator. Participants (n = 364; early childhood, n = 151, Mage = 6.73; late childhood, n = 136, Mage = 10.01; adolescence, n = 59, Mage = 13.92) were visitors to one of four ISLS in the United States and United Kingdom. Following an interaction with a male or female educator, they reported their math and science interest and responded to math and science gender stereotype measures. Female participants reported greater interest in math following an interaction with a female educator, compared to when they interacted with a male educator. In turn, female participants who interacted with a female educator were less likely to report male-biased math gender stereotypes. Self-reported science interest did not differ as a function of educator gender. Together these findings suggest that, when aiming to encourage STEM interest and challenge gender stereotypes in informal settings, we must consider the importance of the gender of educators and learners.

Cells are Us - combining research and public engagement.

The COVID-19 pandemic has reminded scientists and clinicians about the importance of public engagement with science. One way to make this routine, and improve engagement skills of staff and students, is to embed an informal science learning centre within a research institute. The COVID-19 pandemic has reminded scientists and clinicians about the importance of public engagement with science. This World View argues that one way accomplish this is to embed an informal science learning centre within a research institute.

Communities and narratives in neglected spaces: voices from SMASHfestUK

Many people are under-served by existing informal science learning (ISL) provisions and under-represented in STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, Mathematics/Medicine) study choices and careers. This paper reflects upon SMASHfestUK which was established, as both a STEAM festival and research platform, to explore methods and approaches for lowering the barriers to engagement with ISL in marginalised communities. To do this SMASHfestUK located its events in the heart of communities and worked with these communities to create those events. This paper tells their story through the voices of participating communities.

A longitudinal study on how informal science learning is applied in generic learning outcomes (GLO)

Education in the informal educational environment is very important in terms of being able to provide essential knowledge that formal education cannot provide. But the reality is that there is no research on how the study of ISL has been done from the past to the present. Thus, this paper seeks to compare and analyze the recent research trends of papers relating to ISL published within a specific timeframe. The target research papers for analysis are based on ISL-related academic dissertations, articles and research reports, which were located via Google and Google Scholar, within the period of 2010 to 2019. Each research paper was classified into 8 indicators: ‘Paper Type’, ‘ISL Type’, ‘Research Design’, ‘Subject of study’, ‘GLO Type’ and ‘Country’, which were then analyzed accordingly and tested for suitability through 'Chi-Square Test'. The study of ISL was led by the United States and the United Kingdom and there was no significant difference by year. Most of the research samples tended to converge towards ‘Empirical research articles’ and ‘Position papers’, with studies on ISL also mostly containing information related to advice, recommendation and support. It was found that the researchers were using ISL in order to pursue ‘Knowledge and Understanding’ and ‘Attitudes and Values’, of the 5 indicators of the ‘GLO’. In contrast, they were found to have the least expectations for ‘Skills’ and ‘Enjoyment, Inspiration and Creativity’, suggesting the need for future improvement in these areas. Although this paper suffers from limitation with regards to time period as it focuses on research work published from 2010 to 2019, it attempts to suggest a direction for program development and research for various educational practitioners working in ‘ISL’. Also, it hopes to provide a good opportunity for institutions using ‘ISL’ in the field, as well as teachers and future researchers.