Informal Network Members Research Articles

Community as Agency: Community Partner Experiences with Service Learning

The bulk of research on service learning has focused on student outcomes; however, there is a scarcity of research examining the lived experiences of community partners. Additionally, the few studies that exist to date involve agencies and have not included informal networks and civically active citizens. This study consisted of interviews with nine community partners, a combination of agency employees, and active citizens. All of the partners resided in a rural Southern town that worked with a network of service-learning classes on a variety of community-identified projects. The current study supports the contribution of service learning to communities, the importance of investing in reciprocal relationships, and the value added of including community partners who are members of informal networks and civically active residents. Recommendations for further research and strategies to support reciprocal and meaningful community engagement are discussed.

Voices of former foster youth: Supportive relationships in the transition to adulthood

As the adolescent development literature has recognized the importance of social supports in the transition to adulthood, child welfare research, policies, and programs have turned their attention to the relational needs of youth emancipating from the foster care system. This study builds on the extant literature on social support among transitioning foster care youth; it goes beyond the sole identification of relational networks, to explore how youth actually utilize their network members, and the overall quality of their support system. This study collects data from twenty qualitative interviews with foster youth, ages 18–21. We analyze the data using consensual qualitative research methods in order to develop core themes around shared youth experiences. We found that while foster youth did identify a wide network of both formal and informal supports during their transition to adulthood, there were “holes” in the form of support, especially appraisal and instrumental support, provided by informal network members. Additionally, an unrealistic perception of supportive and permanent relationships may be contributing to poor outcomes in emerging adulthood. Implications for policy and practice are discussed. • Explored former foster youth's utilization and quality of their support system. • Youth identify many formal and informal supports during transition to adulthood. • Youth have a paucity of appraisal and instrumental support from informal supports. • Youth have unrealistic perception of supportive and permanent relationships. • Consideration of relational needs of youth transitioning out of foster care needed.

Depression literacy among Chinese in Shanghai, China: a comparison with Chinese-speaking Australians in Melbourne and Chinese in Hong Kong

The study reported in this paper was aimed at developing understanding of depression-related knowledge and preferences surrounding professional help, medication, and treatment methods among Chinese living in Shanghai, China. A multi-stage cluster sampling method in which participants were taken from 6 of the 20 districts in Shanghai was adopted for this study. The 522 Shanghai Chinese participants were presented with a vignette describing an individual with depression before being asked questions designed to assess both their understanding of depression and their preferences surrounding professional help, medication, and treatment methods. A comparative approach was adopted to identify similarities and differences between our findings and those of two previous studies on the mental health literacy of Chinese living in Melbourne, Australia, and Hong Kong, respectively. A similarly low percentage of Chinese people in each of Shanghai, Hong Kong, and Australia recognized depression. Fewer Shanghai Chinese than Chinese living in Hong Kong and Australia ascribed the 'anxiety/stress' label to the depression vignette and endorsed professionals and informal network members as helpful. Although a far lower percentage of Shanghai Chinese endorsed the use of counseling professionals, a much higher percentage of the same group endorsed Chinese medical doctors and herbal medication. A lower percentage of Shanghai Chinese endorsed 'lifestyle changes' as a strategy for combating depression than did Chinese subjects living in Australia and Hong Kong. On the other hand, a higher percentage of Shanghai residents endorsed psychiatric treatment and the traditional Chinese practices of 'eating nutritious food/taking supplements' and 'qigong' than among the other two groups of Chinese. This study underlines the need for campaigns aimed at improving the mental health literacy of Chinese in Shanghai. Such campaigns must take into consideration the socially and culturally driven beliefs to facilitate the development of specific education programs.

Intervening in Partner Violence Against Women

A large body of cross-sectional and longitudinal research demonstrates the important contribution of informal social networks to the well-being and safety of female survivors of intimate partner violence (IPV). Most survivors turn to family and friends before, during, and after their involvement with formal services; and many rely solely on informal forms of support. Yet surprisingly little research exists on the subjective experiences of informal network members themselves. This study used grounded theory to represent the dynamic and fluid process through which network members become aware of the violence in their friend or family member’s intimate relationship, make meaning of the violence, develop a narrative regarding their own role in the situation, and use that narrative to guide subsequent decision making about whether and how to engage with the survivor and/or abusive partner. The authors discuss implications of this model for developing a range of network-oriented intervention and prevention strategies.

A call for a social network-oriented approach to services for survivors of intimate partner violence.

Despite the many hard-won victories of the antidomestic violence movement, it has had less success in reaching one of its own primary goals: that of making intimate partner violence a problem of the community rather than a problem between two individuals. Most mainstream domestic violence service models have not prioritized ongoing engagement of survivors' informal social support networks as a core part of their work. Yet the perpetration of domestic violence occurs within a community context that contributes to the maintenance or alleviation of the problem. Given extensive research on the centrality of social networks to the fabric of survivors' daily lives, as well as their ongoing safety and emotional well-being, it is critical to consider how domestic violence services and systems can align with these social networks more effectively. Following a review of research on the role of informal social support in survivors' lives, this article calls for a shift in mainstream domestic violence services toward a more network-oriented approach, one that highlights potential partnerships between professionals and survivors' informal social support networks. Such a shift would require a reconceptualization of the role of the domestic violence practitioner and the scope and nature of services. It would also raise a series of emergent research questions about how informal network members can best support survivors, how domestic violence services can help survivors engage with existing and new supporters, and the extent to which specific types of network-oriented practices can indeed improve survivors' safety and well-being. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)

The Healthy Connections Project: A Community-Based Participatory Research Project Involving Women at Risk for Diabetes and Hypertension

The Healthy Connections (HC) project was a community health worker (CHW) intervention that built upon existing social networks to encourage African American and Latina women to obtain screening for type 2 diabetes and hypertension. This community-based participatory research (CBPR) project involved identifying and training CHWs, known as HC Advocates (HCAs). The HCAs provided screening through House Parties and shared health information and practical support with members of their social networks and broader networks of individuals. Data collection methods included project documentation, participant observation, group interviews, closed-ended surveys, and written examinations to ensure HCAs had the required knowledge and skills to perform their roles. Data collection and analysis incorporated both qualitative and quantitative methods, and used a formative approach that integrated results from key aspects of the project into ongoing decision-making and project activities. Eight community residents completed training and the required exams to become HCAs. Together, they conducted 124 House Parties, screened 1,428 individuals for high blood pressure and glucose levels, and shared health information with those individuals as well as 218 additional members of HCAs informal social networks. Of those who attended the House Parties, 93% were African American, 4% Latina, 2% non-Hispanics whites, and 1% other racial and ethnic groups. The HC project demonstrated the potential for using a CBPR approach to develop, implement, and evaluate a CHW intervention designed to reach African American and Latina women at high risk for hypertension and type 2 diabetes. Participation from relevant communities in the design of the intervention and evaluation, with particular attention to recruitment and retention of representatives from communities who face challenges accessing health care, can help to increase involvement of community residents in screening and educational programs aimed at addressing disparities in type 2 diabetes and hypertension.

The Healthy Connections Project: A Community-Based Participatory Research Project Involving Women at Risk for Diabetes and Hypertension

Background: The Healthy Connections (HC) project was a community health worker (CHW) intervention that built upon existing social networks to encourage African American and Latina women to obtain screening for type 2 diabetes and hypertension. Objectives: This community-based participatory research (CBPR) project involved identifying and training CHWs, known as HC Advocates (HCAs). The HCAs provided screening through House Parties and shared health information and practical support with members of their social networks and broader networks of individuals. Methods: Data collection methods included project documentation, participant observation, group interviews, closedended surveys, and written examinations to ensure HCAs had the required knowledge and skills to perform their roles. Data collection and analysis incorporated both qualitative and quantitative methods, and used a formative approach that integrated results from key aspects of the project into ongoing decision-making and project activities. Results: Eight community residents completed training and the required exams to become HCAs. Together, they conducted 124 House Parties, screened 1,428 individuals for high blood pressure and glucose levels, and shared health information with those individuals as well as 218 additional members of HCAs informal social networks. Of those who attended the House Parties, 93% were African American, 4% Latina, 2% non-Hispanics whites, and 1% other racial and ethnic groups. Conclusion: The HC project demonstrated the potential for using a CBPR approach to develop, implement, and evaluate a CHW intervention designed to reach African American and Latina women at high risk for hypertension and type 2 diabetes. Participation from relevant communities in the design of the intervention and evaluation, with particular attention to recruitment and retention of representatives from communities who face challenges accessing health care, can help to increase involvement of community residents in screening and educational programs aimed at addressing disparities in type 2 diabetes and hypertension.

Research: Issues of active ageing: Perceptions of older people with lifelong intellectual disability

The study aimed to investigate the lived experiences of older people with lifelong intellectual disability and to explore the meaning of active ageing for this group. Data were collected using semistructured interviews with 16 service users (people with lifelong intellectual disability aged 50+ years); 16 service providers and 16 key informal network members from regional/rural and urban areas in Queensland and Victoria. Themes identified: being empowered, being actively involved, having a sense of security, maintaining skills and learning, having congenial living arrangements, having optimal health and fitness, being safe and feeling safe and having satisfying relationships and support. Service users wanted to 'keep on keeping-on' in areas of life that gave them pleasure rather than discontinuing them because of age. They wanted more control over issues affecting their lives and to be given meaningful roles. Mental stimulation, companionship, reliable support and safety were valued by this group.

Crucial Individuals in the Help-Seeking Pathway of Chinese Caregivers of Relatives with Early Psychosis in Hong Kong

This study attempted to identify the crucial individuals in the help-seeking pathways of Chinese caregivers of relatives suffering from early psychosis in Hong Kong. In-depth interviews with 58 caregivers were conducted. The findings suggest that although the family caregivers usually initiated the help-seeking process, informal network members were instrumental in confirming the presence of mental illness and encouraged the caregivers to seek external help. School social workers acted as a bridge between the informal and formal networks and referred the adolescents for psychiatric consultations. However, it was found that some of the ill relatives did not recognize the severity of their mental health problems, which posed a major obstacle to help seeking. Contrary to the claims in overseas literature, the informal network members' accurate recognition of mental illness quickened the help-seeking process. Individual, cultural, and social institutional factors were identified and used to further explain these characteristics of help seeking. Implications for social work practice are highlighted.

Uncovering sociocultural factors influencing the pathway to care of chinese caregivers with relatives suffering from early psychosis in hong kong

I used a qualitative approach to explore the sociocultural factors influencing the pattern of the help-seeking pathway of Chinese caregivers with relatives suffering from early psychosis in Hong Kong. Analyses of the interview scripts of 58 caregivers revealed that they required an average of 5 months and 2.14 helpers before their ill relatives could receive formal psychiatric services. Drawing on Lin and Lin's model of the Chinese help-seeking pathway as a basis for discussion, this study finds that family caregivers engaged in intrafamilial coping and expanded in concentric circles to include relatives and friends as helpers in the help-seeking pathway. Contrary to Lin and Lin's view that informal network members might cause a delay in the help-seeking process, it is revealed that informal network members who possessed adequate knowledge of mental illness were able to encourage family caregivers to seek help from formal psychiatric services. The duration leading to extrafamilial coping was shorter than the one implied in Lin and Lin's model. Family caregivers were quite ready to seek help from professionals in the formal psychiatric services despite the fact that the ill relatives were reluctant to seek treatment due to psychiatric stigma. Finally, the findings of this study do not support the existence of the "rejection phase" of the help-seeking process proposed by Lin and Lin.

A Community Capacity-Enhancement Approach to Breast and Cervical Cancer Screening among Older Women of Color

In the Screening Older Minority Women project, the authors applied a community capacity-enhancement approach to promoting breast and cervical cancer screening among older women of color. Members of informal support networks were recruited for this health promotion intervention to empower Latina and African American women to engage in positive health behaviors. The authors describe the phases of the intervention and the experiences from the community. Guidelines are identified to help researchers and practitioners in planning and implementing community health promotion intervention with women of color.

Formal and Informal Social Networks of Women with Serious Mental Illness

The case study method was used to describe formal and informal social networks of four women with serious mental illness and to capture what happens in network interactions. Supportive roles were identified, with significant overlap between roles performed by formal and informal network members. In contrast to many studies, this study's participants all showed reciprocity in relationships. Network relationships, while supportive, often were conflicted. Themes related to stability of relationships were identified. Practice recommendations include recognition of each person's "context" apart from his or her illness and the importance of capitalizing on positive factors within the person's life context. Further research is needed to identify confirming and contradictory findings.

Welfare participation and social support in late life.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among participation in welfare programs, gender, and change in social support in adults aged 65 and older. It was hypothesized that older men receiving public assistance would encounter more social network problems than older women on welfare. The findings reveal that during the 7-year study older men in receipt of welfare benefits, compared with older women on welfare, received less social support from others, were more dissatisfied with the assistance they got, and encountered more negative interaction from informal social network members (i.e., family and friends). The results suggest that those who administer welfare programs, as well as public policymakers, should consider developing interventions that address the wider psychosocial problems associated with receiving public assistance.

Correlates of Formal and Informal Support Seeking in Sexual Assault Victims

Correlates of service seeking were examined in a sample of 323 sexual assault victims. Several barriers to disclosure to different formal support providers were explored to determine whether victim characteristics, assault variables, and postassault experiences differentiated those women who sought formal assistance from those seeking informal support only. As expected, victims of stranger rapes with more injury were more likely to seek support from formal service providers. Victims seeking formal assistance reported receiving more negative social reactions when disclosing their assaults than victims soliciting support from informal social network members only. Frequency of receipt of positive social reactions did not differ as a function of disclosing to formal support providers or informal sources only, with the exception of tangible aid, which was more commonly provided by formal support sources. Implications for encouraging help seeking by victims and reducing negative social reactions of formal support providers are given.

Entrepreneurial Networks in the Micro-Business Sector: Examining Differences Across Gender and Business Stage

In-depth interviews were conducted with 31 entrepreneurs from a variety of micro businesses in Nova Scotia to explore entrepreneurial networks. Results indicate women's networks are no more formal than men's, however, informal network members such as family and friends and those in other businesses were more frequently cited by women than by men. Both those in the startup and ongoing stages rely more on informal than formal networks. Participants tended not to belong to formal networking organizations. Overwhelmingly, participants viewed their networks as successful with benefits seen largely in terms of advice and sales. Micro entrepreneurs tend not to have a clear view of their networks which are small and not particularly diverse. Implications are discussed.

Psychometric Characteristics of the Social Reactions Questionnaire: A Measure of Reactions to Sexual Assault Victims

Negative social reactions are common responses to disclosures of sexual assault. A study was undertaken to evaluate the psychometric characteristics of a new measure of social reactions to sexual assault victims, the Social Reactions Questionnaire (SRQ). Good reliability and validity were demonstrated for the measure in three samples of sexual assault victims: community volunteers, college students, and victims contacting mental health agencies. The SRQ provides a much needed measure of both the positive forms of social support and several negative social reactions received by sexual assault victims disclosing their assaults to a range of informal social network members and formal support providers.

The role of social support in breastfeeding promotion: a literature review.

The current worldwide decline in the initiation and duration of breastfeeding has increased the need for effective breastfeeding promotion. Promotion policies and programs need to be sensitive to those factors that may help or hinder a mother in her efforts to breastfeed. Such factors include sociodemographic characteristics, maternal employment, and social support. Social support that increases breastfeeding includes emotional, tangible, and educational components from both informal social network members (male partner, mother, family/friends) and professional network members (health care professionals, lactation consultants). Conversely, negative social support may decrease breastfeeding.

The Buzz Outside the Clinics: Conversations and Contraception in Nyanza Province, Kenya

When women talk with each other about family planning outside the clinic, are they really only spreading myths and rumors? If nurses give good information about family planning, why do women go and talk with other women? Why would a woman instructed by a nurse at a workshop want to talk to the workshop cleaner as well? To answer these questions, findings are used from a household survey and in-depth interviews that examine the role of informal social interaction in influencing the use of contraceptives in rural Kenya. The women in the study area are found to be ambivalent about family planing, and they supplement providers' instructions with the experiences of women whose bodies and circumstances are similar to their own. Family planning programs could improve their effectiveness by viewing clients and providers not only as individuals but also as members of informal networks that are meaningful to them.

When Parents Relinquish Care: Informal Support Networks of Older People with Intellectual Disability

Adults with intellectual disability lack the two key providers of informal support in later life, children and a spouse. This qualitative study examined the informal support networks of 62 older people with intellectual disability who had left parental care after mid‐life. Semi‐structured interviews with multiple informants were used to collect data about their supportive relationships. Informal networks were found to be small, dense and dominated by family members. A striking feature was the existence of a ‘key person’ who combined frequent contact, strong commitment and performance of a range of instrumental tasks. Key people were predominantly siblings but also included more distant relatives and friends. These findings indicate that, for this subgroup of older people, normative family roles such as ‘protector’ and ‘facilitator’ (Sussman, 1985) were fulfilled by informal network members despite the absence of spouses or children.

Elderly Women with Hip Fractures:

This study examined the functional and psychosocial characteristics of 100 community-dwelling older women recovering from hip fractures. The greater number of pre-fracture health conditions reported by the women, the lower they rated their post-fracture ADL recovery. The more stress, depression, and help received from informal network members, the poorer the women s perceived recovery. The greater their feelings of attachment to their informal network, the higher the women rated their ADL and overall recovery. Discussion focuses on the role of psychosocial factors in the recovery process.