Informal Mentoring Research Articles

Launching a Research Career: T‐15 Years and Counting

This invited reflection paper offers suggestions for early career researchers—both graduate students and new assistant professors—that are grounded in my own experiences during my quest to launch a research career. Topics include developing both topical and methodological expertise, identifying informal and formal mentors who have experience leading others toward research‐based careers, cultivating a network of colleagues capable of offering insights for improving one's research, and managing other responsibilities in ways that do not supplant productive research activities. Recommendations for graduate students and new assistant professors are offered throughout.

Mentoring in Criminology and Criminal Justice Doctoral Education: Doctoral Program Coordinators’ Perspectives

The importance of mentoring and supervising students has been a concern for criminal justice and criminology doctoral education. Doctoral students’ perceptions on the impacts of mentoring have attracted scholarly attention, but little attention has focused specifically on faculty perspectives. This study reports survey results from 21 doctoral coordinators in criminology and criminal justice doctoral programs. Topics include the prevalence of both informal and formal mentoring programs, the doctoral coordinators’ perceptions of the ways in which mentoring contributes to academic success, and the functions and aspects of their own mentoring programs that are most significant to the academic success of doctoral students. Findings reveal that not all doctoral programs provide mentoring. The coordinators’ perceived values of mentoring programs vary by the type of mentoring (formal or informal). However, the coordinators report that their mentoring programs influence students’ academic success regardless of the type of mentoring. The manuscript concludes with implications of the results and recommendations specific to mentoring doctoral students in criminology and criminal justice.

Are You My Mentor? New Perspectives and Research on Informal Mentorship

The goal of this study was to investigate the characteristics and perceived value of informal mentorship by conducting a survey of academic librarians and non-librarians with MLIS degrees in Illinois. The body of literature surrounding informal mentorship comprises of a very small portion of that which relates to mentorship in general. The literature often presented problematic definitions and posed questions of legitimacy as informal mentorship has qualities that have been cited as examples of poor mentoring relationships. Our survey data highlighted characteristics of informal mentoring relationships and suggested that informal mentorship has been considered as valuable and more widely accessible to mentees than formal mentorship.

360° Folio Networking: Enhancing Advising Interactions and Expanding Mentoring Opportunities with ePortfolios

This article examines how students can use the ePortfolio tool and platform to facilitate and foster increased opportunities for interactions with formal academic advisors and informal mentors. The learning documented within an ePortfolio can be especially useful as a resource for advisors and mentors who are looking not only to connect with their students in meaningful and relevant ways, but who also seek to understand their advisees' backgrounds and interests in order to better guide and support them along their academic journey. Drawing on theories from advising, mentoring, social networking, and communities of practice, the 360° folio networking framework proposed explains the enhanced advising interactions and expanded mentoring opportunities that result when applied to ePortfolios. Examples from several institutions illustrating how ePortfolios have been integrated into advising and mentoring programs are explored.

Finding FRiENDs: Creating a Community of Support for Early Career Academics

Starting on an academic journey can be a stressful and isolating experience. Although some universities have formal mentoring structures to facilitate this transition for new faculty, these structures do not always provide the variety of supports that may be needed to navigate the complexities of transitioning to the world of academia. As we (the authors of this paper) began our academic journeys, we found ourselves searching for support that was not available within our institutions. By drawing on previous connections and building new connections to peers at other universities, we created an informal peer mentoring structure that has continued to support us through the early years of our careers in academia. In this paper we share our stories of the challenges we faced as early career academics, discuss the ways this informal peer mentoring community provided support for us at the beginnings of our academic journeys, and offer advice for other early career academics seeking non-traditional forms of support along the academic career path.

Seeing You in Me and Me in You: Personal Identification in the Phases of Mentoring Relationships

Identification is integral to mentoring relationships, yet we know relatively little about the process through which mentors and proteges identify with each other, how this mutual identification shifts through the phases of the mentoring relationship, and how identification impacts the quality of the relationship over time. In this article we integrate theories of the self, relationships, and relational mentoring to consider the role of identification in informal mentoring. Specifically, we theorize how the process of personal identification occurs in mentoring from the perspective of both the mentor and protege and offer a model that demonstrates how shifts in identification relate to the quality of the relationship that develops over time. We conclude with a discussion of implications for research and theory in mentoring.

The impact of effort-oriented epistemological beliefs on mentoring support

Purpose– The purpose of this paper is to examine the role of mentor beliefs about effort related to the knowledge and learning process on their extent of mentoring at work, and to determine the role that the mentor’s perception of psychological safety plays in tempering this relationship.Design/methodology/approach– This study was conducted at an 820-member organization maintenance and operations organization consisting of a number of professions in which apprenticeship-style learning is prevalent. Data collection resulted in 570 members self-identifying as having mentored a less experienced colleague. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to confirm that the measurement instrument represents one unified factor, and a structural equation modelling approach was used to assess the relationships among the study’s latent variables.Findings– Results reveal that mentors who hold sophisticated effort-oriented beliefs are more likely to offer psychosocial support to their protégés. Further, although the relationship between effort-oriented beliefs and vocational support is not significant, the mentor’s perception of a psychologically safe work environment significantly moderates both sets of relationships.Research limitations/implications– As approximately 88 per cent of respondents work in service, as opposed to administrative groups, caution should be exercised in generalizing this study’s findings to the general workforce population. Further, the present study did not differentiate mentors who identified a current or previous subordinate as their protégé from those whose protégés were not a subordinate, nor did the authors differentiate formal from informal mentoring relationships. Thus, further investigation is needed to determine whether our hypothesized relationships differ in any unique manifestations of mentoring relationships at work.Practical implications– By providing a better understanding of the relationship between effort-oriented beliefs and mentoring at work, this study may help in the design of more effective mentoring relationships and ultimately enhance knowledge management and workplace learning.Originality/value– There is no previous research that investigates how one’s cognitions about the effort associated with the knowledge and learning process, in particular, influence mentoring at work. This study provides a model for understanding and developing enhanced mentoring relationships, which are considered a critical element of organizational learning.

A survey of mentorship among Canadian anesthesiology residents.

Mentorship in medicine is associated with increased career satisfaction and personal development. Despite these benefits, little is known about mentorship in anesthesiology training programs. Our objectives were to determine (1) the prevalence of formal mentorship programs among anesthesiology training programs in Canada, (2) the prevalence of informal and formal mentorship among anesthesiology residents in Canada, and (3) the predictors of having an identified mentor among anesthesiology residents in Canada. We conducted a cross-sectional web-based survey of residents and program directors from Canadian anesthesiology residency programs. Program directors were questioned about formal mentorship programs, and residents were asked to provide demographic data and information about their mentorship relationships. We analyzed the relationship between resident characteristics and mentorship. Our survey response rates were 76% and 39% for the Program Director Survey and the Resident Survey, respectively. Formal mentorship programs were present in 54% of residency training programs, and 94% of residents agreed that mentorship was important. Seventy-four percent of residents identified at least one mentor, although 42% of these residents did not interact regularly with their mentor. Mentors and mentees were more likely to be of the same gender. If a formal mentorship program was present, residents were more likely to identify a mentor (82 vs 17%) and interact regularly with their mentor (70 vs 46%). Formal mentorship programs were present in half of anesthesiology training programs. Although 74% of the residents identified a mentor, 42% did not interact regularly with their mentor. The presence of a formal mentorship program was positively associated with mentorship.

Formal Mentoring Programs Can Provide Organizational and Professional Benefits, but are Few and Far Between in Canadian Academic Libraries

A Review of:
 Harrington, M. R., & Marshall, E. (2014). Analyses of mentoring expectations, activities, and support in Canadian academic libraries. College & Research Libraries, 75(6), 763-790. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5860/crl.75.6.763 
 
 Abstract
 
 Objective – To determine the extent to which formal and informal mentoring is present in Canadian academic libraries and how such activities meet expectations for new librarians, practising librarians, and library administrators.
 
 Design – Online surveys.
 
 Setting – Canadian college and university libraries.
 
 Subjects – Three groups were defined and surveyed: graduates from one Canadian MLIS program; librarians practising in a Canadian academic library, and library administrators directing a Canadian academic library.
 
 Methods – Participants were selected using stratified, purposeful sampling and were invited to participate in an online survey in December 2010. Three surveys were distributed in total; one for each of the three target groups defined. The surveys contained both closed- and open-ended questions. Students from one specific MLIS program graduating in December 2010 and Spring 2011 were directly invited to participate. An incentive was offered to the student group and the librarian group to encourage participation.
 
 Main Results – Mentoring programs in Canadian colleges and universities are present but are largely informal. Mentoring activities are positively correlated with student population, how long a mentor has worked professionally, and whether or not librarians had been mentored early in their careers. 83% of new graduates expected to be mentored when hired by a Canadian academic library while less than one quarter of librarians and no administrators reported having similar expectations when starting their professional academic careers. Over 50% of the students who responded to the survey reported that they had experienced some form of mentoring while completing their MLIS, though that may be related to the cooperative placement component of their educational program. All respondents, with the exception of university administers, indicated that library colleagues are appropriate mentors, while academic librarians and administrators felt that the mentorship relationship would not benefit were the mentor also the supervisor. 
 
 Respondents placed the greatest weight of importance on mentoring activities related to academic expertise, career guidance, psychosocial support and role models, while indicating that evaluation was not considered to have a significant place in the mentor-mentee relationship. Networking, cultural complexities, general encouragement, and career counseling were seen as important mentorship aspects for both new graduates and practising librarians. Administrators in both college and university libraries were less likely to support mentoring particularly in the areas of assisting with grant writing, evaluation, and career counseling. In general, administrators were reluctant to develop or support formal mentor programming even though a significant percentage agreed that it would benefit succession planning. 
 
 Conclusion – New graduates and practising librarians expect to participate in some form of mentoring activities yet there are very few Canadian academic libraries providing formal mentorship programming. The value of the mentor-mentee relationship with respect to organizational planning, recruitment and retention, as well as career planning, is perceived as high amongst new graduates, practising librarians, and administrators.

Building research capacity for African institutions: confronting the research leadership gap and lessons from African research leaders

This study explores the meaning and competencies of ‘research leadership’ in the African context and investigates strategies for developing it. Data for the study were gathered through an online survey that targeted recipients of research grants/support from key research funders to selected African institutions. The recipients of these grants were either research leaders or team members. The study employs a mixed methodology approach with empirical data drawn from focus group discussions and online surveys of English-speaking research leaders and research teams whose research work was supported by the selected funding institutions. In line with literature of leadership styles in Africa, our results suggest that preferred research leadership style for African researchers is different in some ways, especially with its attention to the ‘human touch’. Respondents preferred ‘people/relationship orientated’, ‘task­orientated’ and ‘democratic/participative’ styles of leadership, all of which have strong elements of Ubuntu (humaneness). The study also showed that leadership development for many in Africa involves mostly ‘learning by doing’ and informal mentoring, and less formal training opportunities. We explore policy implications of our findings with reference to research leadership development in African institutions, paying particular attention to challenges faced by female research leaders, and stress that research leadership development in Africa must be seen as a long-term and continuous activity and calls for more formal leadership development opportunities to complement the existing informal approaches.

Informal Mentoring at Work: A Review and Suggestions for Future Research

This paper reviews the literature on informal mentoring at work. Based on two basic premises of interpersonal relationships, it discusses four promising areas in current mentoring research that could be cultivated further by future research. The first premise that we hold is that relationships never exist in a vacuum. Traditionally, however, mentoring literature has often overlooked the context of mentoring. We propose that the developmental network approach can be further extended to gather more insight into the interplay between mentoring dyads and their context. Also, mentoring literature could pay more attention to temporal influences in mentoring studies. The second premise that is applied is that relationships are not only instrumental in nature. However, mentoring research to date has mostly applied a one‐sided and transactional view to mentoring. Relational mentoring theory could be helpful in examining relational motivations of both members. Also, mentoring literature can achieve more explanatory power by examining the underlying mechanisms of mentoring, next to social exchange principles, that cause these developmental changes. In summary, in each of these four research areas, we identify and discuss fundamental questions and developments in research that can advance mentoring theory and practice.

Informal peer mentoring in early career researchers

Purpose– The purpose of this paper is to explore an informal interdisciplinary peer-mentoring relationship between two early career researchers.Design/methodology/approach– A case study approach, using autoethnography, was employed to explore the relationship from a complex adaptive systems (CAS) perspective.Findings– Informal peer-mentoring relationships may improve the work effectiveness and quality of the doctoral student and early career researcher experience. CAS can be an effective overarching theory for expanding understandings about mentoring.Research limitations/implications– This case study is limited to two early career researchers.Practical implications– Informal peer mentoring may help to overcome challenges encountered by doctoral students, early career researchers and university staff members. CAS accounts of mentoring have the potential to open new possibilities for future mentoring research.Originality/value– This paper provides unique insights into the experiences of doctoral students postgraduation and a long-term informal peer-mentoring relationship. Explorations of mentoring relationships from a CAS perspective are innovative.

A hybrid approach benefits beginning teachers

Formal mentoring is the cornerstone of most teacher induction programs, but teachers receive support from informal mentors as well. The authors report on findings from a study of 57 first-year mathematics teachers in 11 school districts to describe who teachers’ formal and informal mentors are, how teachers work with them, and how the functions of formal and informal mentors serve for beginning teachers. They offer suggestions for how schools and districts can harness the power of these two forms of mentoring by embracing both.

Mentoring protégés of color: Experiences of primary and informal mentors

This study examines mentoring from the perspective of academic mentors involved in relationships with protégés of color. Specifically, we look at factors that influence academic mentors' relationship satisfaction, commitment, and intentions to mentor protégés of color. Results suggest that interpersonal comfort, perceived similarity, and intrinsic motivation contribute positively to these mentor outcomes. As hypothesized, our data also suggests that interpersonal comfort, intrinsic motivation, and perceived similarity are more important for primary mentors than for informal mentors. The management education and career development implications of these findings are discussed.

Results of a Formal Mentorship Program for Internal Medicine Residents: Can We Facilitate Genuine Mentorship?

Mentorship programs are perceived as valuable, yet little is known about the effect of program design on mentoring effectiveness. We developed a program focused on mentoring relationship quality and evaluated how subsequent relationships compared to preexisting informal pairings. Faculty members were invited by e-mail to participate in a new mentoring program. Participants were asked to complete a biography, subsequently provided to second- and third-year internal medicine residents. Residents were instructed to contact available mentors, and ultimately designate a formal mentor. All faculty and residents were provided a half-day workshop training, written guidelines, and e-mails. Reminders were e-mailed and announced in conferences approximately monthly. Residents were surveyed at the end of the academic year. Thirty-seven faculty members completed the biography, and 70% (26 of 37) of residents responded to the survey. Of the resident respondents, 77% (20 of 26) chose a formal mentor. Of the remainder, most had a previous informal mentor. Overall, 96% (25 of 26) of the residents had identified a mentor of some kind compared to 50% (13 of 26) before the intervention (P < .001), and 70% (14 of 20) who chose formal mentors identified them as actual mentors. Similar numbers of residents described their mentors as invested in the mentorship, and there was no statistical difference in the number of times mentors and mentees met. Facilitated selection of formal mentors produced relationships similar to preexisting informal ones. This model may increase the prevalence of mentorship without decreasing quality.

Mentoring in higher education: does it enhance mentees’ research productivity?

Mentoring programs are increasingly widespread in academia. Still, comparatively little is known about their effects. With the help of a self-collected dataset of 368 researchers in two different fields and accounting for self-selection via matching techniques, we find mentees in formal mentoring programs to be more productive than comparable researchers who do not participate in a formal program – irrespective of whether these instead have an informal mentor or not. Informal mentoring relationships, to the contrary, do not positively affect mentees’ research productivity.

働く女性におけるメンター有無と職務満足感，ワークライフコンフリクトの関連性

Objective: The present study revealed association of having mentor with mentee job satisfaction and work life conflict among working women. Methods: A web-based survey was administered to 1,202 female managers and staff within large corporations; 757 responses (63.0%) were obtained, and 698 responses (58.1%) with full data were analyzed. Analysis of covariance was used to compare the mean score of job satisfaction and work-life conflict among mentees with informal mentor, formal mentor, informal and formal mentor, and non-mentees. Results: 48.1% of the study subjects hold mentors. Mentees with only informal mentors showed greater job satisfaction and lower work-life conflict than non-mentees, however, no significant differences emerged not only between mentees with only formal mentors and non-mentees but also between mentees with only informal mentors and only formal mentors. Conclusions: Results suggested effectiveness of having informal mentor for improving job satisfaction as well as decreasing work-life conflict of working women. The effectiveness of formal mentor needs to be examined with larger sample.

Reducing Intellectual Poverty of Outsiders within Academic Spaces through Informal Peer Mentorship

Academia is changing and a growing number of academics are finding themselves in non-tenure-track positions, experiencing increasing numbers of career transitions, or following alternative career trajectories. Academics in these positions often find themselves positioned as outsiders within their institutions and/or the broader academic community. In this article, the authors draw on narratives from eight members of an international peer mentoring group to examine the nature of being an outsider within academia, and the role that informal peer mentoring can play in reducing intellectual poverty for academics in outsider spaces. The findings illuminate the nature of intellectual poverty they experienced—including isolation and invisibility—lack of access to institutional knowledge, and lack of resources for professional development. The participants’ narratives also highlight the ways in which peer mentoring enhanced their professional development, allowed participants to access support beyond institutional and geographic boundaries, and provided social support and motivation to move forward in scholarly pursuits.

Ethical misconduct of HPCSA registered Occupational Therapists in South Africa

In South Africa, the health care professions are regulated by statutory bodies which are organs of the state and can enforce laws such as the Health Professions Act. The Health Professions Act provides the parameters within which the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA) can sanction members if they are in contravention of its regulations. During the period under analysis i.e. between 2007 and 2013, only three penalties were imposed against two occupational therapy practitioners. Although the number of penalties can be viewed as insignificant the value of the research is in the fact that cognisance needs to be taken by the profession of the relevant ethical issues in these cases. It is recommended that occupational therapists should always inform their clients appropriately and should also form informal mentoring groups. Keywords: ethical transgressions, fraud, ethical standards

Resilience, stress, and coping among Canadian medical students

Numerous studies have established that medical school is a stressful place but coping styles and resilience have not been adequately addressed as protective factors. Using a cross-sectional design, 155 students were surveyed using the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale, Perceived Stress Scale, and the Canadian Community Health Survey Coping Scale. Mean scores were compared by gender and between our sample and normative scores using t-tests. Multivariate linear regression was performed to examine whether stress levels were related to coping and resilience. Medical students had higher perceived stress, negative coping, and lower resilience than age and gender-matched peers in the general population. Male medical students had higher positive coping scores than general population peers and higher resilience, and lower perceived stress than female medical students. Coping scores did not vary by gender in our sample. The multivariate model showed that resilience and negative, but not positive coping, predicted stress. Medical students are neither more resilient nor better equipped with coping skills than peers in the population. Greater emphasis on self-care among medical trainees is recommended. Emphasizing the importance of self-care during medical training, whether by formal incorporation into the curriculum or informal mentorship, deserves further study.