Influence Household Food Security Research Articles

Factors Influencing the Adoption of Urban Agriculture and Its Effects on Household Food Security in Southwestern Nigeria

Given Nigeria's growing population and the rapid rural-to-urban migration, it is crucial to examine various initiatives that can consistently support and improve food security in urban areas. This study examined one of these initiatives, which has proven to be an effective strategy in some areas of the world. Factors influencing the adoption of urban agriculture and its effect on the food security of households were examined in this study. A multi-stage sampling technique was used for data collection among 325 respondents. The analysis was conducted using descriptive statistics, probit, and ordered probit regression models. The descriptive statistics revealed that about 59% of respondents are engaged in urban agriculture. Among the determinants of urban agriculture adoption, age, land ownership, land size, and association membership were observed to positively determine the adoption of urban agriculture, while years of education, access to credit, and income negatively influence its adoption. The ordered probit regression model was used to assess the factors that influence the food security of farming households. Covariates including age and household sizes were found to negatively influence food security. Conversely, gender, education, land ownership rights, land size, credit access, association membership, and urban agriculture positively influence household food security. It was therefore concluded that urban agriculture is an effective means to improve household food security in Southwestern Nigeria. However, increasing awareness and education about the benefits of urban agriculture is crucial, as people often abandon this practice when they have increased access to credit and income. Furthermore, policies toward promoting land ownership and equality in access to resources should be implemented, as this will promote easy participation in urban agriculture.

KEBIJAKAN PEMERINTAH DALAM PENCEGAHAN PENULARAN COVID-19 BERDAMPAK PADA KETAHANAN PANGAN DAN POLA KONSUMSI RUMAH TANGGA DI INDONESIA

Household food security is an essential issue for a country and has become a national issue in poor and developing countries worldwide during the COVID-19 pandemic. Various problems could arise if household food-nutrition needs are not met. This study aims to explore factors related to household food security during the COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia. A systematic literature review that was used twelve articles. Three electronic databases (Google Scholar, ProQuest, and ScienceDirect) were used to find the articles between January 2020 to April 2023. The original articles were selected based on the PRISMA-P flowchart model. The results show the socio-demographic (sex of household’s head, age, education, literacy) and socio-economic (occupation, income, wealth, area of living) factors influencing household food security. Households having a male head of household, good literacy, and an adequate economy have a significant effect on having nutritious food security during COVID-19 pandemic. These findings recommend that the central government of Indonesia provide financial assistance to food-insecure households, improve access to food, and promote healthy food products.

Exploring the nexus between poor governance and household food security

A cross-sectional-based study was conducted in Torghar Pakistan to analyze the association between impacts of poor governance and household food security through sociological lens. A sample size of 379 household heads was chosen randomly for data collection through structured questionnaire. The collected data was then analyzed in terms of bivariate and multivariate analyses, and binary logit model. At bivariate analysis, the study found that inadequate governance, political instability in terms of shortage of food supply chain, smuggling of food commodities had open new vistas toward starvation and household food insecurity. At multivariate analysis, the family composition has vivid association between household food security and poor governance. Although religious education and lower level of education deteriorate the existing food security at household level were also explored. Lastly, at binary logistic regression model depicted that increased in poor governance influence household food security negatively. Thus, the government should collaborate with local political leaders to identify those lacunas and institutional weakness that affect the good governance patterns in terms of smuggling and nepotism which deteriorate the existing channel of food supply chain during militancy were put forwarded some of the recommendations in light of the present study.

The Impact of Climate Change on Household Food Security (Afghanistan): A Review

Climate change is predicted to adversely affect agricultural yields, particularly in Asian countries, where crop production heavely relies on environmental factors such as rainfall and temperature. However, there have been limited studies on the effects of climate change dynamics on food security in Asia, particularly at the household level. Consequently We conducte analysis of local climatic changes, the status of household food security, climate-related causes of food insecurity, food security determinants and the adaptation strategies employed by local farmers. The research revealed that the Climate change over the last three decades negitively impacted the food security status of households. Crop production faced constraints due to inadequate rainfall, severe erosion and rising temperatures. Additionaly factors such as unpredictability of rainfall, pests and diseases further contributed to the challenges. Using the calorie intake approach, 60.5% of sampled respondents were food insecure. Further analysis utalizing the logistic regression model showed that age and family size, as well as the amount of cultivated land and rainfall, were the significant (p < 0.05) factors influencing household food security status. A substantial proportion (69.8%) of farmers incorporated adapting strategies into farm management parctice. These strategies included improved use of crop varieties and livestock production, in addition to income diversification. Taken together, these findings show that improving climate change awareness, facilitating the participation of female-led households in income generation and strengthening existing adaptation measures have positive impacts on food security.

Synergizing Sustainable Solutions: Exploring the Nexus of Food Security and Social Forestry in Bangladesh

Social forestry is centered on managing forests with a focus on the well-being of nearby communities, aiming to elevate impoverished populations by offering employment opportunities and addressing basic needs such as food, fodder, fuel, furniture, and resources. Through these efforts, social forestry not only fosters self-reliance among disadvantaged groups but also contributes to broader developmental goals. In our study, we aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of social forestry in improving the lives of rural poor individuals. We conducted a review using secondary data, selecting articles based on specific criteria and analyzing information from 16 chosen articles. Our investigation revealed that factors such as income, household size, education, staple food costs, and the gender of the household head significantly influence household food security, and social forestry initiatives can lead to considerable benefits. Our findings indicate that individuals without land are particularly engaged in social forestry projects, resulting in increased income levels, with some experiencing earnings exceeding $666. This approach also supports shifting cultivators, enhancing their livelihoods and expanding forested areas in the region. Furthermore, the adoption of agroforestry within social forestry plots has led to a notable shift, with approximately 64% of people transitioning to agroforestry practices, thereby augmenting rural women's incomes by up to $300. Overall, social forestry has contributed to a 31% increase in forested areas in Bangladesh. However, challenges such as confusion and high interest rates deter farmers from participating in social forestry initiatives. Addressing these issues could significantly enhance the popularity and income-generating potential of social forestry for rural communities.

Impact of Certified Wheat Seeds on Food Security: A Case Study of Karak, KP, Pakistan

Wheat is a major food crop in the study area. However, wheat yields continue to remain very low in this region mainly due to the use of poor-quality seed. The purpose of this study is to explore the impact of certified wheat seeds on food security, a case study of district Karak (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) Pakistan. The multistage sampling technique was applied to collect data from 100 formers through a face-to-face interview, and a well-structured questionnaire was used to collect information from the respondents. Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used to determine the factors that influence household food security. The results of our study revealed that certified seed, age, access to credit, irrigation, education, off-frame employment, livestock size, and operated area have a positive and significant impact on household food security, but household size has a negative and significant effect on household food security. The policies should be set to promote the use of the certified seed, enhance the level of education, increase the irrigated area, and foster employment opportunities as they have a significant impact on food security. This study also recommended that government and non-government agencies should intensify efforts on the importance of family planning and advocate small family size in rural areas.

Has COVID-19 influenced household food security in the Timorese population?

Food scarcity as an effect of the COVID-19 pandemic has caused famine around the world. The solution of the COVID-19 problem, will involve the minor elements of the community, such as overcoming household food security. This cross-sectional study was carried out to assess whether composite index of household food security, nutrient intake, nutritional status, individual and household dietary diversity score with food and agricultural organization measuring household and individual dietary diversity score among the Timorese family with toddlers’ population during pandemic period, using interviews and direct measurements of respondents, involving 1444 participants. Areas prone to food insecurity had a lower average index score than food-insecure areas. There was a strong correlation between the index score and the level of nutritional adequacy of children under five in: energy, protein, fat, calcium, iron, zinc, and vitamin B12. In addition, the index scores also had a strong positive correlation with the dietary diversity of children under five years old, as seen from the individual dietary diversity score (IDDS) score with r value 0.231 (p value 0.000). There was a strong positive correlation between the index score and the nutritional status of children under five according to body weight for age (BW/A), height for age (H/A), and body weight for height (BW/H). In general, the index developed from this study described the status of household food security. In addition, the total index score could be a fairly strong predictor of nutrient intake and nutritional status in children under five years old.

Government's Policies on the Prevention of COVID-19 Transmission Impacting Household Food Security in Indonesia

Household food security is an essential issue for a country and has become a national issue in poor and developing countries worldwide during the COVID-19 pandemic. Various problems could arise if household food-nutrition needs are not met. This study aims to explore factors related to household food security during the COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia. A systematic literature review that was used twelve articles. Three electronic databases (Google Scholar, ProQuest, and ScienceDirect) were used to find the articles between January 2020 to April 2023. The original articles were selected based on the PRISMA-P flowchart model. The results show the socio-demographic (sex of household’s head, age, education, literacy) and socio-economic (occupation, income, wealth, area of living) factors influencing household food security. Households having a male head of household, good literacy, and an adequate economy have a significant effect on having nutritious food security during COVID-19 pandemic. These findings recommend that the central government of Indonesia provide financial assistance to food-insecure households, improve access to food, and promote healthy food products

Factors influencing livelihood strategy choice and food security among youths in Mashonaland East Province, Zimbabwe

Several governments and development practitioners view youths as critical to the strategy of enhancing food and nutrition security and sustainable livelihoods in rural Africa. Despite youths being at the centre of food and nutrition security, their contribution to household food security remains understudied. The lack of such evidence has made it difficult to develop and implement effective and sustainable solutions to food insecurity and poverty in rural Africa. Thus, the study examines the factors influencing livelihood strategy choice and food security among youths in three districts of Mashonaland East Province, Zimbabwe. A total sample of 200 randomly selected youths was analysed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. The results show that agriculture was the main livelihood strategy followed by remittance dependant, self-employment, migration, and cross-border trading. In terms of remuneration, cross-border trading was found to be the most remunerative livelihood strategy followed by remittance dependant, self-employment, migration, and agriculture. The youths associated their choice of livelihood strategy with factors such as gender, age, land ownership, access to the internet, social group membership, access to credit and level of education. The study also finds food insecurity, notably severe food insecurity to be a general characteristic among the respondents. The nature of the livelihood strategy of the youths, their socioeconomic characteristics and livelihood capital were found to significantly influence household food security. The study recommends that the government implements strategies to make agriculture a sustainable livelihood option and policies to support youth in the non-farm sector should be a priority.

Assessing food security status of rural households in North Eastern Nigeria: A comparison of methodologies

This study analyzed food security status of rural households in North Eastern Nigeria. Secondary data were employed. The data were accessed from the General Household Survey (GHS) for years 2013 and 2016, waves 2 and 3. 451 households were considered in each wave. The objective of the study was to determine the food security status of rural households, analyze factors influencing their food security and compare the output of different methodologies used to measure food security during the periods. Frequency and Percentages were used to analyze the socioeconomic characteristics of respondents. Mean per Capita Food Expenditure (MPCE), Dietary Diversity Score (DDS), Foster, Greer and Thorbecke (FGT) index were used to analyze household food security status while Logit regression model was used to analyze factors influencing household food security status. Results from the descriptive statistics showed that male household heads, married household heads and literate household heads were food secure in both waves. Results from Mean per Capita Food Expenditure (MPCE), and Foster, Greer and Thorbecke (FGT) showed that more than half of the selected households were food secure in both waves but reverse was the case with Dietary Diversity Score (DDS). Age, level of education, and household size were found to be factors influencing food security in both waves and models. The results from the logistic regression showed that an increase in age of household head and household size will reduce the food security status of the North-Easterner’s rural households. Also, the result revealed that the food security status was higher in Borno, Gombe and Yobe compared to Taraba and tertiary education increased the level of food security status for MPCE but reduced the same for DDS. Based on these findings, the study recommends sensitizations on the importance of education and family planning for the rural household in North Eastern states of Nigeria. Key words: Food security status, rural household, North Eastern Nigeria

Factors Influencing Household Food Security among Smallholder Farmers: The Case of the Jordan Valley

Food security is a main challenge for the countries of the world, especially the developing countries. Hence, the aim of this paper is to determine factors that are associated with food security in the Jordan valley. This study utilizes the household questionnaire survey dataset of 211 smallholder farmers in 2020. To measure food security, the study employs two food security indicators, namely the Household dietary diversity score (HDDS) and Household food insecurity access score (HFIAS). Two Multiple Regression Models are estimated with the dependent variables (HDDS) and (HFIAS). Both the (HDDS) and (HFIAS)models findings reveal that the education level of household head, the marital status of household head, the farming experience of household head, farm size, off- farm income, and access to credit influences the household food security. Therefore, the study recommends that government establish and promotion of small-scale agro-based industries, providing the training services and retraining of farmers, and farmer education, as well as expanding the agricultural unit distribution program.

Is climate exacerbating the root causes of conflict in Mali? A climate security analysis through a structural equation modeling approach

Climate continues to pose significant challenges to human existence. Notably, in the past decade, the focus on the role of climate on conflict and social unrest has gained traction in academic, development, and policy communities. This article examines the link between climate variability and conflict in Mali. It advances the argument that climate is a threat multiplier, in other words, climate indirectly affects conflict occurrence through numerous pathways. We take the view that maize production and household food security status sequentially mediate the relationship between climate variability and the different conflict types. First, we provide a brief review of the climate conflict pathways in Mali. Second, we employ the path analysis within the structural equation modeling technique to test the hypothesized pathways and answer the research questions. We use the Living Standards Measurement Study-Integrated Surveys on Agriculture (LSMS-ISA), a nationally representative data from Mali merged with time and location-specific climate and the Armed Conflict Location and Event Data (ACLED) data. Results show that an increase in positive temperature anomalies when sequentially mediated by maize production and household food security status, increase the occurrence of the different conflict types. The results are robust to the use of negative precipitation anomalies (tendency toward less precipitation compared to the historical norm). Our findings highlight two key messages, first, the crucial role of climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies and interventions on influencing household food security status and thus reducing conflict occurrence. Second, that efforts to build peace and security should account for the role of climate in exacerbating the root causes of conflict.

Does Crop Diversity Influence Household Food Security and Women's Individual Dietary Diversity? A Cross-Sectional Study of Malawian Farmers in a Participatory Agroecology and Nutrition Project.

Agroecological methods have the potential to impact nutrition and food security, however, to date there is limited research evaluating this approach. A 5-year participatory research project with farming households in north and central Malawi was designed to train farmers on agroecological practices, alongside raising awareness on nutrition and gender equity. This cross-sectional study aimed to explore the relationships between crop diversity, food security at the household level, and individual diversity for women, within the context of an agroecology, nutrition education, and farmer mentoring program. Participating farmers were trained in and experimented with different farming methods. These farmers subsequently trained other farmers on these short-term agroecological practices and provided mentorship using community-based educational methods designed to address both household food security and nutrition. In year 4 of the intervention, a cross-sectional survey assessed farm practices, food security, and individual dietary diversity of 851 participating households. Households with lower crop diversity were significantly less likely to be food secure (odds ratios [OR] = 0.829, P < .001). Women in households with higher crop diversity were more likely to have higher individual dietary diversity (OR = 1.120, P < .01), eat vitamin A rich foods (OR = 1.176, P < .01), and legumes, nuts, and seeds (OR = 1.141, P < .01). These findings suggest that within a participatory agroecological training combined with community-based nutrition education with a focus on social equity, crop diversity is associated with less household food insecurity and poorer diet quality for rural farming households. Crop diversity may improve dietary diversity by making nutritious foods more available.

POST-HARVEST LOSS AND FOOD SECURITY: A CASE STUDY OF MAJOR FOOD CROPS IN KATSINA STATE, NIGERIA

Post-harvest loss (PHL) is the reduction in the quantity and quality of crops produced after harvest. This can lead to serious consequences for household food security in Nigeria. This study was conducted to improve our understanding of the effect of Post-harvest loss in food crops in Katsina State, Nigeria. Primary data were collected from a survey of 240 farming households that were randomly selected across 16 Local Government areas in the State. The results shows that majority of the respondents are within 41-50 years of age and married with household sizes of between 9-16 persons. Sorghum, millet, maize and cowpea are the major food crops that suffer high levels of PHL in Katsina State. Cowpea PHL were higher during storage, Sorghum PHL were higher during threshing and storage while maize PHL were higher during drying and at storage. Millet losses were also higher during threshing and storage respectively. The PHL in cowpea are mainly due to insect pest attack and spillage during post-harvest handling operations. Poor storage conditions and spillage are also responsible for the losses observed in sorghum. Maize PHL are mainly due to theft and spillage while millet losses are due to spillage and poor storage facilities. The study concludes that post-harvest losses significantly influenced household food security in Katsina State. It is therefore recommended that farmers should be trained on Post-harvest management and be provided with modern storage facilities in order to reduce PHL.

Exploring the Food (In)Security Status of Suburban Households and Its Determinants during COVID-19

Household food insecurity in South African suburban low-income households is a major challenge. Research outcomes that will inform decisions on effective solutions towards reducing household food insecurity in South Africa are essential. The purpose of this study was firstly to determine the food security status of households and the skills of household members in Ward 60 of the Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality in the Eastern Cape Province in South Africa. Secondly, it was also to determine the association between the socioeconomic and demographic variables of the households and their level of food (in-)security. The study employed a mixed method of both qualitative and quantitative methodologies, comprising a qualitative Community-Based Participatory Action Research (CBPAR) methodology and a quantitative household food security survey methodology. A household food security survey was employed using a questionnaire that was based on the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS). The questionnaire was used to collect data from 170 randomly selected households. The data analysis used the HFIAS score and logistic regression analysis. The results show 6.1% of households as food secure, 3.05% as mildly food insecure, 13.4% as moderately food insecure, and 77.4% as severely food insecure. The results also show that a significant unemployment rate, a reliance on social grants, and absence of income seriously impact the extent of household food insecurity. The results show a significant association between the household food security and the variables of unemployment, income, and gender. The regression analysis results suggest that gender, household size, age, employment, and household income influence household food security. The results of the household skills show that the households had a variety of skills. These results can help to inform decisions by the government, local municipalities, NGOs, and other stakeholders towards designing effective solutions for enhancing household food security.

Economic coping strategies and food security in poor rural households

Purpose. This study aims to analyze economic coping strategies and their relationship to the food security of poor rural households.&#x0D; Methodology / approach. This research was conducted by comparing food crop farming households with those who farm plantation crops. The used data were sourced from surveys in four sample rural areas in two districts of Jambi Province, Indonesia, namely Merangin Regency and Tanjung Jabung Timur Regency. The used analysis tool was Structural Equation Modeling (SEM).&#x0D; Results. The results show that poor rural households’ economic coping strategies are still low, both in the context of a passive strategy (cutting back expenses) and an active strategy (generating income). Plantation households have a lower economic coping strategy than food crop farming households. The level of food security in food crop households is relatively good compared to that of plantation crop households. Nearly half of food crop households are categorized as having good food security, while only around 20 % of plantation crop households are so categorized. Family characteristics and coping strategies significantly influence household food security in plantation crop households. On the other hand, the level of household food security in food crop households is not influenced by coping strategies, but only by family characteristics.&#x0D; Originality / scientific novelty. The scientific novelty of the study is in a study approach that links household food security with coping strategies and family socio-economic conditions. Furthermore, this study specifically conducted a comparative study of households of food crop farmers and plantation crop farmers, considering that these are the two main livelihood commodities for rural residents.&#x0D; Practical value / implications. Through this research, it is hoped that the concept/theory of improving the food security of poor households (especially in rural areas) can be developed based on the potential and real conditions of the households themselves, so that the formulated policies can be more effective and sustainable.

Climate change impacts on household food security and farmers adaptation strategies

Climate change is predicted to adversely affect agricultural yields, particularly in African countries such as Ethiopia, where crop production relies heavily on environmental factors such as rainfall and temperature. However, there have only been a limited number of studies on the effects of climate change dynamics on food security in Africa, particularly at the household level. We therefore analyzed local climatic changes, the status of household food security, climate-related causes of food insecurity, food security determinants and the adaptation strategies of local farmers. Three decades meteorological data were analyzed. A total of 185 farmers were selected using simple random sampling and interviewed, together with focus groups. Data were analyzed using the descriptive and inferential statistics were used together with the logit regression model. Climate change over the last three decades was found to have a negative impact the food security status of households. Crop production was constrained by poor rainfall, severe erosion and increases in temperature. The unpredictability of rainfall, pests and diseases were also contributing factors. Using the calorie intake approach, 60.5% of sampled respondents were found to be food insecure. Analysis using the logistic regression model showed that age and family size, as well as the amount of cultivated land and rainfall were the significant (p < 0.05) factors influencing household food security status. A large proportion (69.8%) of farmers were incorporating adapting strategies into farm management including improved use of crop varieties and livestock production, in addition to income diversification. Taken together, these findings show that improving climate change awareness, facilitating the participation of female-led households in income generation and strengthening existing adaptation measures have positive impacts on food security. • Temperature and rainfall variability. • Impact of climate change on crop production and household food security. • Farmers indigenous knowledge on climate change adaptation measures.

Factors Affecting The Food Security of The Bajo Community Households In West Muna District During The Covid-19 Pandemic

This study aims to determine the factors that affect the household food security of the Bajo community in Napano Kusambi Sub District. The research was conducted in Napano Kusambi Sub District, West Muna District, the selection of the research location was carried out deliberately (Purposive), with the consideration that the village is a coastal village with many Bajo community settlements, most of whom work as fishermen. The population in this study were all the Bajo people in Napano Kusambi Sub District, namely 180 families, with a total sample size of 64 respondents using the Slovin formula. To answer the objective, a binary logistic model is used. The results showed that based on the binary logistic test, the factors that significantly influenced household food security of the Bajo community in Napano Kusambi Sub District, West Muna District were income, age of the head of the household, and the age of the housewife.

Household food security among Hadza hunter-gatherers in Mkalama district, Tanzania

BackgroundFood insecurity is a widespread public health concern in many communities of sub-Saharan Africa. This study involved the Hadza hunter-gatherers of Tanzania, the only ethnic group in the country that has traditionally subsisted on hunting and gathering. In recent years, however, these communities have adopted mixed foraging economies. Information on how this change affects household food security is rather limited. The aim of this study was to assess the status of food security and the factors influencing household food security in the Hadza hunter-gatherer communities.MethodsA cross-sectional study of 200 households was conducted in Mkalama district, Tanzania. Sampled householders represented individuals whose livelihood is mainly dependent on foraging (n = 129), beekeeping (n = 30) and farming (n = 41). Food security was measured by assessing food availability (Months of Adequate Food Provisioning (MAHFP)), food access (Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS)) and food utilization (Dietary Diversity Scores (DDS)).ResultsMean MAHFP was lower (p = 0.000) in predominantly foraging households (8.4 ± 1.1) compared with those involved in beekeeping (8.7 ± 1.6) or farming (9.6 ± 1.9). Based on HFIAS indicator, the prevalence of food insecurity varied with the household’s main activity (83.0% foraging, 46.7% beekeeping and 26.8% farming). Further, regression analyses show that the farming households were more likely to be food secure than the foraging households (OR = 10.7, p = 0.01). Dietary diversity scores also varied significantly with household’s main activity. About 65% of households (86% foraging, 63.3% beekeeping and 2.4% farming) consumed diets below the critical value of ≤ 4 food groups 24 h prior to survey. Social demographic characteristics and livelihood options are strong predictors of household food security.ConclusionAll indicators used to assess food security point to high level of food insecurity in households mainly subsisting on foraging compared with beekeeping and farming. The primary dependence on foraging is associated with a longer period of food shortage, high prevalence of food insecurity conditions and low consumption of food varieties. Livelihood diversification coupled with provision of agricultural support services is necessary for the development of a secure future of the Hadza communities.

Factors that influence household food security in Hamburg and Melani, Eastern Cape, South Africa

Food is one of the essential areas of service delivery required for a household’s wellbeing and development. Against this background, the literature suggests a high level of food insecurity among rural households in South Africa. Thus far, this study has investigated drivers of household-level food insecurity. Data were collected from 283 randomly selected respondents from Melani and Hamburg communities using a structured questionnaire. An ordered logit regression model was used to investigate drivers of household food insecurity. Descriptive statistics results revealed that most of the respondents from the study areas were food secure to mildly food secure (Melani-inland −73%; Hamburg-coastal −77.5%). The findings suggest that overall, the two communities were food secure. Econometrics results further revealed that factors like gender, household size, energy security, access to credit, farming, land ownership, and being able to afford to pay for water influence food insecurity of households in Melani and Hamburg. Therefore, to reduce household food insecurity, the study recommends that priority should be given to these socio-economic and institutional factors. This could be through improving gender and cultural policies which restrict women from generating income, training households about credit usage, and family planning to limit household sizes.