Influence Business Performance Research Articles

The role of innovation capability in mediation of COVID-19 risk perception and entrepreneurship orientation to business performance

The purpose of this study is to explain how innovation capability influences business performance by mediating the effect of Covid-19 risk perception and entrepreneurial orientation. This study's population consists of MSMEs in Bali's tourism and creative industries. Purposive sampling was utilized to choose 90 managers of MSMEs in the tourist and creative economy sectors. Path Analysis with SEM-PLS was employed as the analytical approach. The findings revealed that the COVID-19 Risk Perception had a negative and significant impact on business performance, but the Entrepreneurship Orientation had a positive and significant impact. Furthermore, COVID-19 Risk Perception had a negative and significant impact on Innovation Capability; while the Entrepreneurship Orientation had a positive and significant effect on Innovation Capability; and Innovation Capability had a positive and significant impact on business performance. In addition, Innovation Capability was able to mediate the influence of COVID-19 Risk Perception and Entrepreneurship Orientation on business performance. Therefore, it is important for MSMEs in the tourism and creative economy sectors in Bali to improve their Entrepreneurship Orientation so that they are able to build higher innovation capabilities in order to improve business performance in facing the risks of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Association of Gender and Age with Buying Choices for Malls Vs. E-Retailing: A Quantitative Investigation

Shopping in India has always been a fascinating experience. With the diversity in population and culture India also comprises diversity in taste and likings. There are many differences and similarities in the behavior of males and females while shopping for a particular product. Apart age is also determining factor while considering the shopping behavior of people. Generally speaking, people think that women devote greater amounts of time shopping than males. Contrarily, men prefer to enter a shop, search for a certain item they desire, purchase it as quickly as they can, and then exit. Women, on the other hand, patiently search through all of the brands to find the product they want, compare layouts, and look for any potential discounts, haggle, and ultimately purchase the item that satisfies their needs. An essential component of commercial activity is to understand consumer purchasing behavior. Consumer purchasing behavior is a key factor influencing business performance in a marketing-driven economy.&nbsp

The impact of war in Ukraine on the inbound tourism in Lithuania

The objective of this paper is to examine the impact of the war in Ukraine on the inbound tour operators. The hypothesis that war in Ukraine has a significant impact on Lithuanian inbound tour operators was tested using a quantitative research method. To do so, the data was collected through an online survey, targeting Lithuanian inbound tour operators providing ground services for international tourists in Lithuania. The moment of the survey (2022, April) provided opportunity to examine the effect of war in Ukraine on inbound tourism. The results show that the war has a serious negative impact on tourism arrivals to Lithuania. The study found that the number of bookings has decreased heavily, what also means decrease in tourism revenues. The main cancellation reasons that were mentioned are military conflict in Ukraine and unsafe situation. Biggest number of cancellations arrived from Germany, United States and France. Tourism products with the greatest impact are cultural, business tourism and weekend trips. Our study is, to the best our knowledge, the first to examine the impact of the war in Ukraine on the inbound tour operators. Results from the study hold potential for better understanding how war and political instability influence business performance.

The Role of E-Accounting Adoption on Business Performance: The Moderating Role of COVID-19

In the last decade, information systems (ISs) have made dynamic developments in light of their ability to enhance the performances of businesses. In relation to this, an organization that is effectively and efficiently managed often displays optimum performance using financial systems such as electronic accounting (e-accounting). Thus, essentially, e-accounting is utilized for the automation of operational processes and for improving business efficiency and performance. More currently, e-accounting dynamic development has laid credence to the performance of businesses in a way that the influence cannot be exaggerated. Nevertheless, past studies evidenced that successful e-accounting depends on critical success factors, and hence this study primarily aims to conduct an evaluation of e-accounting using DeLone and McLean’s information system model (DM ISM) among firms in Jordan. More specifically, this study determines the influence of information quality, system quality, service quality, system usage, and user satisfaction on business performance. The current study adopted a quantitative method, applying a self-administered survey questionnaire for the purpose of data collection from 104 e-accounting users. This study employed partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) to validate the data, and based on the findings, system quality and information quality affect system use; service quality of e-accounting had no significant impact on use, but e-accounting use had a significant influence on the satisfaction of users. Moreover, e-accounting system use and user satisfaction positively influence business performance. This study is an extension of the current IS literature, particularly of those focused on determining the effects of e-accounting benefits. This study validated the proposed model in the context of Jordanian firms and contributes to both the literature on and practice of e-accounting. This study provided implications, limitations, and recommendations for future research.

The Mediation Effect of Business Strategy on the Relations between External Factors, Internal Factors and Business Performance

This study aims to test the influence of external, internal factors and business strategy on business performance, in addition to the mediation effect of business strategy on external, internal and business performance. This research was carried out in 150 restaurants in Dili, Timor-Leste, and questionnaires were used to collect data. SMART-PLS 3.0 was used to test the hypothesis. The finding reveals that external factors had no significant impact on business performance, and internal factors positively influenced business performance. The mediation effect of external and internal factors had no significant impact on business performance. This research extends the empirical works of Huang & Lee (2012), Metts, (2007) and Barney (1991) on the relationship among external factors, internal factors, and business strategy and performance. This study practically contributes to the restaurant manager and regulators being aware of threats and opportunities from the external environment and improving internal construct to enhance business performance.

Understanding the interplay between event communications and local business decision-making using signalling theory: the case of the 2018 Commonwealth Games

ABSTRACT Research question Governments often launch high profile and expensive bids to host large-scale sporting events to promote economic development. However, many studies have called into question the economic benefits of these events for host communities and businesses. This study examines the perceptions of host city businesses and their decision-making in relation to event leveraging, using the 2018 Gold Coast Commonwealth Games as a case study. Research methods Using in-depth interviews, a purposive study of 38 business professionals and experts based in the host city of the Gold Coast were conducted. Example mass media, social media, documents, and personal communications materials are presented to illustrate the messaging that businesses were exposed to. Data were analysed using an inductive thematic content approach through the software NVivo. Results and findings This study confirms that event-related information is vital for business leveraging behaviour. The data illustrated that local firms were at a point of information asymmetry between official forecasted information and their actual in-time experience. As businesses sought out information to inform their business decision-making, they found incomplete and inaccurate information which impacted their success in event leveraging decisions. Implications Our contribution to knowledge and practice is to propose that event mis/information that is often associated with large-scale sporting events is problematic for business planning and decision making. In applying signalling theory, we discern how official event messaging influences business performance, making an important contribution by highlighting that this mismanagement of official event messaging by event officials presents a critical inhibitor for event leveraging decisions.

Quality of Work Life (QWL) and Its Impact on the Performance of the Banking Industry in Saudi Arabia

The quality of work life (QWL), job satisfaction, and individual work performance are the lynchpins of organizational performance and sustained business growth (SBG). Numerous researchers have recognized an association between QWL and SBG. Positive QWL dimensions ensure a workforce’s commitment to SBG. Like SERVQUAL, the QWL has several dimensions, and the most common are: (1) job satisfaction, (2) autonomy, (3) physical working environment, (4) remuneration, (5) career growth, (6) collegial relationships, and (7) relationship with management. A career in the banking industry has always been considered a symbol of prestige, prosperity, job security, and job satisfaction. To understand this, we present the WRKLFQUAL model to measure QWL and its impact on job security and satisfaction (JSS) and individual work performance (IWP). The dimensions and subdimensions of WRKLFQUAL are different from the dimensions and subdimensions of SERVQUAL; however, mechanisms measuring service quality and QWL have similar approaches. Accordingly, this study applied gap analysis to find what workforces expected from their work environments, as well as what they have actually experienced. Many researchers have argued that gaps in service quality significantly influence business performance. In this regard, our research found that almost all dimensions of WRKLFQUAL have negative gaps, meaning poor QWL causes job dissatisfaction and hampers IWP. Regression analysis also shows that average gaps have a significant relationship with job satisfaction. Finally, research proves that job security and satisfaction plays a mediating role in average gap scores and individual work performance. This study was carried out with reference to the banking sector’s performance in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, as follows. Cronbach’s α score suggests that 95% of the sample is free of error. To apply WRKLFQUAL on the same lines those of SERVQUAL, we developed seven dimensions and 28 subdimensions. Based on these dimensions, seven factors were extracted, all with factor loading between 0.745 and 0.835, confirming that all components had quite a high level of common variance. Accordingly, gaps in QWL, ranging from −0.997 to −1.149, also show that almost all the dimensions and subdimensions need improvements. Carrying this analysis further, we also compared QWL between Saudi and non-Saudi multinational banks and found that the QWL of the Saudi banking system has a slight edge over non-Saudi multinational banks. A correlation among seven predictors, ranging from 0.625 to 0.812, suggests that all seven predictors are highly correlated. Similarly, regression analysis with R2 0.704 shows that we have a good-fitting model. Hence, we argue that JSS depends on QWL and conclude that negative QWL causes job dissatisfaction and insecurity. We also examined the mediating impact of JSS on QWL and IWP and conclude that the Sobel test, in most cases, provided results higher than 1.98, which is the minimum criterion of having Sobel be significant and effective. Hence, we prove that JSS has a mediating role in QWL and IWP. Finally, we conclude that poor QWL causes job dissatisfaction and eventually reduces organizational efficiency.

PENGARUH ORIENTASI KEWIRAUSAHAAN DAN ORIENTASI PASAR TERHADAP KINERJA USAHA MEBEL

This research aims to identify the effects of entrepreneurial orientation andmarket orientation on the performance of furniture companies. The population of this studyis45furniture business owners in Bukir, an urban village in Pasuruan city. The data was harvestedthrough questionnaires and library research and was analyzed using multiple linear regressionin SPSS 26 for Windows. The research instruments were assessed using validitytest, reliability test, and classical assumption test. The hypothesis testing was performedusingFtest and t test, from which beta coefficient and relationship between variables were obtained. This study finds that entrepreneurial orientation (which consists of proactive, risk-taking, andanticipative indicators), market orientation (which consists of market information, customerorientation, and responsiveness) positively and significantly influence business performance.

Investigating the entrepreneurial behaviour of farmers to encourage the development of horticultural agribusiness clusters: The case of shallot farmers in Solok Regency, West Sumatera

In Indonesia, shallot production fluctuations can impact price fluctuations and even lead to inflation. The government program to develop new production centres of shallot to fill the supply gap during the off-season are expected to stabilize the prices. One of the emerging development centres of shallots is Solok Regency, West Sumatra. A study on farmers’ entrepreneurial behaviour is needed to support the implementation of the development program and analyze the influence of entrepreneurial behaviour on the performance of shallot business. A survey was conducted in Solok Regency. The survey was carried out by purposive sampling method, with a total sample of 95 shallot farmers. Data were analyzed using Partial Least Square (PLS) to understand the influence of internal and external factors on farmers’ entrepreneurial behaviour and how the entrepreneurial behaviour influences business performance. The results showed that internal and external factors positively and significantly affect entrepreneurial behaviour, and entrepreneurial behaviour has a positive and significant effect on business performance.

‘Fall to Rise’ : A Quest to Revive Performance of Sri Lanka’s Boutique Hotels in Post-Easter Attack

This study aims to identify the factors influencing the business performance of boutique hotels in Sri Lanka, in particular, those factors that impact the most post-Easter Sunday attacks. Three major factors were identified based on past literature; these were operators’ experience and strategies, financial structure and marketing strategies. During May to July, 2020, data were collected via a questionnaire to respondents, who are owners of 53 boutique hotels. Snowball sampling was used as the sampling technique. Data were analyzed using SPSS stastical software and multiple regression was used to identify the factors that influence the performance of boutique hotels the most. The study findings conclude that the -operator’s previous experience and strategies- is the factor that influences business performance the most. Twelve semi-structured interviews were conducted to investigate/examine how boutique hotels have regained their business performance in the aftermath of the Easter Sunday attack. The analysis revealed that boutique hotels have adopted the local market strategy, the social media marketing strategy, discounts and promotional strategies, the employee lay off strategy and the employee training & development strategy to regain business performance post-Easter Sunday attacks. This study is significant for boutique hotel owners to maximize their profits and for the government to implement better tourism-related policies, to revive Sri Lanka’s tourism industry.

Integrated Marketing Communication Strategy To Increase The Number Of Outcoming Visits At Royal Prima Hospital

Competition in a healthy hospital business lies in how to maintain patient trust as consumers or how to grow trust in prospective patients as consumers so that they want to seek treatment at the hospital. Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) has great potential in influencing business performance, to give hospitals a competitive advantage. This study aims to analyze making a strategy to create an Integrated Marketing Communication strategy in order to increase the number of outpatient visits at the Royal Prima Hospital. This type of research is a qualitative research. The location of this research was conducted at the Royal Prima Hospital. Research informants are 1 head of outpatient installation, 3 medical staff, 3 old patients, 3 new patients. Data were collected by FGD, questionnaire, observation. The results show that the advertising strategy as part of increasing the number of outpatient visits at the Royal Prima Hospital has been carried out by the marketing department both with print media and electronic media, the personal selling strategy as part of increasing the number of outpatient visits at the Royal Prima Hospital has not been implemented. optimally, the public relations strategy as part of increasing the number of outpatient visits at the Royal Prima Hospital has been implemented well, the direct marketing strategy as part of increasing the number of outpatient visits at the Royal Prima Hospital in writing is good but verbal delivery is not optimal , the word of mouth strategy as part of increasing the number of outpatient visits at the Royal Prima Hospital in writing has been good but the verbal implementation has not been carried out properly. The results of this study suggest that the hospital evaluates the

Evaluating the Influence of Digital Technology on the Performance of Female-Owned Enterprises in Nigeria

The strategic contributions of digital technology in the operations and performance of entrepreneurial ventures are a profound phenomenon, involving continual adaptation to a constantly evolving business environment. This paper examines the influence of digital technology on female-owned enterprises based on customers satisfaction in Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja, Nigeria. Survey research was employed to derive primary data through the use of structured closed-ended questionnaires from 113 selected female-owned enterprises registered with NECA's Network of Entrepreneurial Women (NNEW). Adopting digital orientation, digital capability and digital transformation as dimensions of the digital technology which is the independent variable, multiple regression was used to measure its impact on customer satisfaction as the dependent variable. Findings revealed that the awareness of digitalisation does not suffice to influence business performance, but adopting and adapting to new technology is crucial in creating value addition to meet and exceed customers’ expectations. Conclusively, this research establishes the requisite for female-owned enterprises to embrace and exploit the vast potential and significant role that digital technology plays in the enhancement of business performance, for improved strategic competitive advantage and economic development.

Entrepreneurship and technological innovation: The micro-entrepreneur in Mexico

<p>Entrepreneurship has gained importance in the field of research due to its ability to dynamize the economy. Knowing how technological expertise and access to financing influence business performance will enable micro-entrepreneurs to make decisions about technological training strategies within their company. Therefore, the aim of this investigation is to analyse and identify the influence between the Technological Training of Human Resources and awareness on the use of ICTs in business management on an ICT development level and access to finance, by micro-entrepreneurs of Celaya, Guanajuato, Mexico. The methodology is quantitative and transversal, with data collection taking place between 2016-2017 and the informants being the owners or partners of micro businesses located in the municipality of Celaya, Guanajuato, Mexico. Obtaining from a population of 24100 economic units according to the National Statistical Directory of Economic Units of INEGI, establishing a sample of 379 companies with a confidence level of 95% and 5% sample error, via simple random sampling. The share corresponds to 21.11% of the total sample, and it is a representative sample as entrepreneurs have low participation due to the insecurity in the region. A model based on quantitative indicators which have an influence on business performance of Mexican micro-entrepreneurs is proposed. Nine indicators are taken into consideration; three from the Business Performance variable: 1) Customer Retention, 2) Asset yield, 3) Return on equity, and five from the Technological Expertise of Micro-Enterprises: 4) Technological Preparation of Human Resources, 5) ICT access, 6) awareness of the use of ICTs, 7) Use of ICT in the administration of the company, 8) Level of ICT development, and one from access to financing 9) Financing for technological preparation of the company. Concluding that while micro-entrepreneurs are aware of the importance of ICTs in their businesses, Celaya's micro-enterprises have a low level of technological expertise.</p>

Development of Marketing Techniques in Women-Owned Enterprises through Credit and Training: A Perspective from SMEP Microfinance Bank Program in Nakuru Town, Kenya

More women are starting businesses, but they still face significant challenges operating their businesses. Marketing one such prominent challenge encountered by these businesses. Most MSEs in Kenya rarely invest in formal marketing development as a core function of their operations to gain competitive advantage as their management/owners have no formal training in marketing, hence, relying on informal marketing methods. Marketing training is, thus, crucial to any business and hence it is important to assess how training in this line influences business performance. Therefore, the objective of the paper was to determine whether credit and training offered by SMEP Microfinance Bank had influenced the usage of marketing techniques in the women-owned enterprises in Nakuru Town. The study used a longitudinal survey design targeting women enterpreneurs in the area who were clients of the microfinance banks. Through systematic random sampling, the study selected 145 women who were forllowed over a period of 12 months. Data was colected using researcher developed pre-tested questionnaires and was analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. The Z-test analysis shows that a significant change occurred after receiving obtaining credit and training and marketing techniques. This implied that training in marketing techniques was an important aspect of business training and improved the performance of the businesses.Therefore, more coverage needs to be made in the training of marketing techniques as most of the women entrepreneurs had not fully grasped the concepts and it was affecting their growth prospects.

Supply chain finance in enhancing supply-oriented and demand-oriented performance capabilities – moderating role of perceived partner opportunism

PurposeWhile supply chain scholars concur on the need to integrate supply chain finance (SCF) processes to meet ever-changing customer demands, it is unclear how SCF influences business performance in the presence of perceived opportunistic behavior. Therefore, the study aims to investigate the moderating role of perceived partner opportunism in the supply chain.Design/methodology/approachDrawing on the dynamic capability theory (DCT), this study investigates how perceived supply chain partner opportunism moderates the mediating role of supply- and demand-oriented performances on the link between SCF and business performance, from the retail industry perspective. Data was collected from Australian retailing firms. In all, 293 completed surveys were received. Moderated mediation analysis was conducted.FindingsThe results of this study indicate that supply- and demand-oriented performances serially mediate the relationship between SCF and business performance. The study also found that the effect of SCF on performance was higher when perceived partner opportunism was lower.Practical implicationsTo respond to changes in consumer preferences and demand effectively, supply chain and marketing managers need to understand the complex interaction between supply- and demand-oriented performances and the key role of SCF in developing such capabilities.Originality/valueThe current study theorizes and demonstrates the effects of supply- and demand-oriented performances that can facilitate the effects of SCF on business performance. Also, the study reveals the effect of each dimension of SCF (accounts payable, accounts receivable and inventory finance) on supply- and demand-oriented performances. Additionally, the study shows the key role of perceived partner opportunism in supply chain management.

PENGARUH INSENTIF TERHADAP PRESTASI KERJA TEAM MARKETING PT IKAFOOD PUTRAMAS

PT Ikafood Putramas hopes to carry out its activities on a set schedule in order to optimally meet its productivity. In this context, how employees can perform at their best and provide incentives to motivate employees to get the job done. In this context, the aim of this study is to show how important the influence of material and immaterial incentives is on employee performance. This type of survey uses questionnaires as a data collection tool that are distributed among respondents with a sample of 54 people. The data analysis used a descriptive analysis that included the distribution of the elements in each variable and then a simple linear regression analysis. The results of the linear regression test and partial regression analysis showed that the motivation of the simultaneous variable (X) on employee performance (Y) with the value R-squared was 0.129. This figure shows that the simultaneous incentive variable (X) used in this regression equation contributes 12.9% to employee performance (Y), while the remaining 87.1% is examined under the influence of other variables outside the two independent variables. Proposals for PT Ikafood Putramas are consistent with research and discussions about employee incentives, and it is recommended that companies pay more attention to incentives that influence business performance.

Digitalization in public sector in emerging economies: The enablers and inhibitors influence electronic customs in Vietnam

This paper investigates how customs officials perceive the implementation of e-customs will influence business performance in Vietnam, a developing country with a lower technological environment. A survey of customs officials was conducted, and data were analyzed by structural equation modelling. The outcomes discover two significant enablers related to relative advantages and the new exploring factor Culture while Finance & Human Resources and Legislation as the inhibitors. Additionally, the study also emphasized that e-customs implementation had a positive influence on firm performance in Vietnam. In addition, the study provides different viewpoints of cultural dimensions in case study of applying e-customs in Vietnam in comparison with previous studies. Culture with attributions related to uncertain acceptance and individualism encourage innovation in other literature reviews, however, the study indicates uncertainty avoidance and collectivism as Vietnam also promotes e-customs deployment. Vietnam with high power distance and short-term orientation became old themes. This emerging country switched to low distance and long-term orientation in terms of e-customs innovation. In contrast to previous studies related to constraints from technology in emerging economies, technological factors are not an obstacle for Vietnam. Furthermore, previous literature reviews inflected legislation and regulations of government as one of the limitations that should be examined in further and this research carried-out this investigation in one of emerging economies. The results of the paper support policy makers who can have essential solutions to enhance e-customs implementation as well as enterprises’ managers set-up strategy to adapt with the modernization environment.

BUSINESS PERFORMANCE OF MICRO-ENTERPRISES IN NORTHERN MINDANAO, PHILIPPINES: A MULTINOMIAL LOGISTIC REGRESSION ANALYSIS

This study investigated the factors that influence the business performance of micro-enterprises in Northern Mindanao. Specifically, it examined the profile, marketing practices, entrepreneurial orientation, access to finance, and business performance of these enterprises. The study used responses from 417 micro-enterprises selected through stratified random sampling from the provinces of Bukidnon, Camiguin, Lanao del Norte, Misamis Occidental and Misamis Oriental. A descriptivecorrelational research design was employed to attain the objectives of the study. More than half of micro-enterprises employed 1-4 employees and undertook their business for not more than five years. Marketing practices are implemented most of the time. Their entrepreneurial orientation was high, access to finance was moderate to great, and their business performance for the last three years was average to good. The aggregate multinomial logistic regression analysis reveals that among the variables used in the study, business age, marketing practices, entrepreneurial orientation, and access to finance significantly influence the business performance of micro-enterprises. The multinomial logistic regression per industry analysis yields a different result. In merchandising industry sector, marketing practices, business age, and access to finance influence substantially business performance. In the service industry sector, entrepreneurial orientation, business age, and access to finance significantly influence business performance.

Human Resource Management Practices and Business Performance: The Mediating Effect of Corporate Entrepreneurship

Globalisation is creating profound and substantial changes for businesses and industries worldwide. These changes have forced businesses to re-evaluate their organisational philosophy and strategic approaches to become more competitive. Corporate-level entrepreneurship is indispensable in improving productivity and promoting economic growth. The paper’s purpose was to determine the mediating role of corporate entrepreneurship between human resource management practices (HRMPs) and business performance. Following this purpose, the interrelationship between specific human resource practices, corporate entrepreneurship and business performance was investigated. After that, the mediating role of corporate entrepreneurship in the relationship between human resource practices and business performance was examined. A quantitative, formal, and cross-sectional approach was used. Data were collected using a survey, and self-administered questionnaires were emailed to 744 human resource managers in medium and large businesses in Gauteng. A response rate of 47.6 per cent was achieved as 351 usable questionnaires were received. The results provide empirical evidence that corporate entrepreneurship (CE) is stimulated by better employee relations, selection practices, compensation, high level of employee development and skills training. The evidence further shows that HRMPs influence business performance and that a positive relationship exists between innovation intensity and risk propensity and business performance.

Effect of entrepreneurial orientation on business performance of young women agribusiness owners in Benin: Do social and business environments matter?

This research examined how key entrepreneurial orientation (EO) dimensions influence business performance of young women agribusiness owners, as well as the moderating effects of social and business environments on these relationships. Data were collected from a sample of 365 young women agri-food processing business owners in Benin. Moderated multiple regression methods were used to test multiple hypotheses including the interaction effects of social and business environments. The three EO dimensions identified in the context of young women agribusiness owners, namely Innovative EO, Pro-active EO and Risk-taking EO, positively influence business performance. The joint effect of EO and social environment on business performance was not significant. In contrast, the business environment negatively moderates the relationship between EO and business performance. Furthermore, there is a three-way interaction between EO, social and business environments, such that these young women entrepreneurs achieve low level of performance when adopting EO in social and business environments with high levels of barriers. The training of potential young women agribusiness owners on the appropriate EO, and the establishment of an innovation platform to jointly draft and implement action plans could enhance the performance of young women agribusiness owners. This study provides a critical understanding of what EO dimensions to stimulate for increased economic success of young women agribusiness owners. It also highlights the specific conditions for the effectiveness of EO on business performance of these entrepreneurs in developing contexts such as Benin.