Route Of Infection Research Articles

Drastic reduction in the notification of acute cases of Chagas disease in the Northeast region of Brazil. Epidemiological evaluation in the period 2001–2021

Chagas disease (CD), caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi), is a neglected disease endemic to some Latin American countries, including Brazil. Soon after infection, individuals develop an acute phase, which in most cases is asymptomatic and may go undetected. However, when CD is detected early, notification in the Notifiable Diseases Information System (SINAN), is mandatory. This study aimed to evaluate the information registered in the SINAN database and to determine the epidemiological profile of acute CD in Northeast Brazil, an endemic region, from 2001 to 2021. According to this survey, 1,444 cases of acute CD were reported in the Northeastern region of Brazil during this period. During the first six years, referred to as period 1, 90.24% of the notifications were registered, while the number of notifications significantly decreased in the subsequent years, referred to as period 2. Most individuals diagnosed with acute CD were Afro-Brazilian adults. All known routes of infection by the parasite were reported. Vector-borne transmission was predominant during period 1 (73.29%) and oral transmission during period 2 (58.87%). All nine states in Northeast Brazil reported cases in both periods. A higher incidence of disease was reported in Rio Grande do Norte (RN) during period 1, and in Maranhão (MA) during period 2. Our results show that CD remains a significant public health challenge.

Study on the susceptibility of bovine coronavirus to BALB/c mice

There are no other bovine coronavirus (BCoV) infection models except calves, which makes efficacy evaluation of vaccines and pathogenic mechanism research of BCoV inconvenient owing to their high value and inconvenient operation. This study aimed to establish a mouse model of BCoV infection. BCoV was used to infect 4-week-old male BALB/c mice and the optimal infection conditions were screened, including the following infection routes: gavage, intraperitoneal injection, and tail vein injection at doses of 1 × 108 TCID50, 2 × 108 TCID50 and 4 × 108 TCID50. Using the optimal infection conditions, BALB/c mice were infected with BCoV, and their body weight, blood routine, inflammatory factors, autopsy, virus distribution, and viral load were measured at 1, 3, 5, and 7 days after infection. The results showed that the optimal conditions for infecting BALB/c mice with BCoV HLJ-325 strain were continuous oral gavage for 3 days with a dose of 4 × 108 TCID50. On the 7th day after infection, there was significant extensive consolidation of the lungs and thinning of the colon wall. Significant inflammation was observed in various organs, especially in the colon and alveoli, where a large number of inflammatory cells infiltrate. Both BCoV Ag and nucleic acid are positive in visceral organs. The viral load in the colon and lungs was significantly higher than that in the other organs (p < 0.001). BCoV-infected mice showed a decreasing trend in body weight starting from day 5, and there was a significant difference compared to the control group on days 6 and 7 (p < 0.001). The total number of white blood cells and lymphocytes began to decrease and was significantly lower than that in the control group 24 h after infection (p < 0.001), and gradually returned to the control level. The cytokine TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 showed an increasing trend, significantly higher than the control group on day 5 and 7 (p < 0.001).These results indicate that the BCoV HLJ-325 strain can infect BALB/c mice and cause inflammatory reactions and tissue lesions. The most significant effect was observed on the seventh day after infection with a dose of 4 × 108 TCID50 and three consecutive gavages. This study established, for the first time, a BALB/c mouse model of BCoV infection, providing a technical means for evaluating the immune efficacy of BCoV vaccines and studying their pathogenic mechanisms.

Comparative Effectiveness of Baloxavir Marboxil and Oseltamivir Treatment in Reducing Household Transmission of Influenza: A Post Hoc Analysis of the BLOCKSTONE Trial.

The transmission of influenza virus in households, especially by children, is a major route of infection. Prior studies suggest that timely antiviral treatment of ill cases may reduce infection in household contacts. The aim of the study was to compare the effects of oseltamivir (OTV) and baloxavir marboxil (BXM) treatment of index cases on the secondary attack rate (SAR) of influenza within household. A post hoc analysis was done in BLOCKSTONE trial-a placebo-controlled, double-blinded post-exposure prophylaxis of BXM. Data were derived from the laboratory-confirmed index cases' household contacts who received placebo in the trial and also from household members who did not participate in the trial but completed illness questionnaires. To assess the SAR of household members, multivariate analyses adjusted for factors including age, vaccination status, and household size were performed and compared between contacts of index cases treated with BXM or OTV. In total, 185 index cases (116 treated with BXM and 69 treated with OTV) and 410 household contacts (201 from trial, 209 by questionnaire) were included. The Poisson regression modeling showed that the SAR in household contacts of index cases treated with BXM and OTV was 10.8% and 18.5%, respectively; the adjusted relative reduction in SAR was 41.8% (95% confidence interval: 1.0%-65.7%, p = 0.0456) greater with BXM than OTV. Similar reductions were found in contacts from the trial and those included by questionnaire. BXM treatment of index cases appeared to result in a greater reduction in secondary household transmission than OTV treatment.

The Ecological Risk Assessment of Foodborne Disease Outbreaks in Yazd Province, Iran

Background: Ecological conditions can change infection routes and increase the risks of outbreaks. The aim of this study is risk assessment of foodborne disease outbreaks based on dispersed regional climatic and demographic variables in Yazd Province, Iran. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, data of temporal climatic parameters and regional demographic factors linked to bacterial foodborne diseases were addressed. A multi-level regression analysis model was used to detect associations between the risk of outbreaks and ecological risk factors; the relationships were verified using (P&lt;0.05). Results: Significant associations were observed between the outbreaks and age )P&lt;0.001(, community type (P&lt;0.001), temperature (P=0.04), rainfall (P=0.03) and dust pollution (P&lt;0.001) in scattered parts of the province. The maximum rate of outbreaks was seen in spring, while the frequency of the outbreaks increased during April and October, compared to other months of the year (2012–2016). Conclusion: Consequences have revealed interventions of the environmental exposures in transmissions of microbial agents by complex ecological processes that caused the outbreaks.

Naturally occurring viruses of Drosophila reduce offspring number and lifespan.

Drosophila remains a pre-eminent insect model system for host-virus interaction, but the host range and fitness consequences of the drosophilid virome are poorly understood. Metagenomic studies have reported approximately 200 viruses associated with Drosophilidae, but few isolates are available to characterize the Drosophila immune response, and most characterization has relied on injection and systemic infection. Here, we use a more natural infection route to characterize the fitness effects of infection and to study a wider range of viruses. We exposed laboratory Drosophila melanogaster to 23 naturally occurring viruses from wild-collected drosophilids. We recorded transmission rates along with two components of female fitness: survival and the lifetime number of adult offspring produced. Nine different viruses transmitted during contact with laboratory D. melanogaster, although for the majority, rates of transmission were less than 20%. Five virus infections led to a significant decrease in lifespan (D. melanogaster Nora virus, D. immigrans Nora virus, Muthill virus, galbut virus and Prestney Burn virus), and three led to a reduction in the total number of offspring. Our findings demonstrate the utility of the Drosophila model for community-level studies of host-virus interactions, and suggest that viral infection could be a substantial fitness burden on wild flies.

A RETROSPECTIVE STUDY OF FETOMATERNAL OUTCOME IN HIV POSITIVE PREGNANT WOMEN

Background: In present scenario Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome is one of the worst global health concerns. HIV has a dramatic impact on the health of mother and children. Parent to child transmission of HIV is a major route of new infection in children Methods: A retrospective study was conducted in Jklon hospital, kota from May 2021 to April 2022. All HIV positive pregnant women who were on ART or not and delivered in our hospital were selected. Maternal and fetal outcome variables were analysed. Results: Total deliveries during the study period were 9046. Out Of these HIV positive pregnant women were 36, prevalence being 0.3%. Primigravida were found to be 41.66% during the study period from may 2021 to April 2022. 47.22% were diagnosed HIV positive during pregnancy, vaginal deliveries were 77.77%% and caesarean section was 22.22%. birth weight &lt;2kg in 8.3% and IUFD were 8.3%. Nevirapine prophylaxis were given to 91.66% of neonate Conclusions: our result suggest that Early diagnosis and initiation of therapy will prevent transmission to their children and better fetomaternal outcome. In patients who are on ART education and counselling can alter maternal and neonatal outcome. Awareness and information is important to increase access to PPTCT services. Team approach involving an experienced obstetrician, neonatologist and physician gives hope of having a healthy uninfected baby for HIV infected mothers.

Insights into Nipah Virus: A Review of Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, and Therapeutic Advances

Emerging as a WHO priority pathogen, Nipah virus (NiV) – an RNA virus within the Paramyxoviridae family – first ignited outbreaks in 1998 Malaysia. Closely related to Hendra virus, NiV continues to threaten South and Southeast Asia. A zoonotic threat, Nipah virus (NiV) jumps from its natural reservoir, fruit bats, to pigs and then humans. This BSL-4 threat, with no cure or shield, compels us to harmonise the voices of humans, animals, and the environment in a One Health symphony to prevent future outbreaks. A 2018 Chinese study identified populations at high risk for Nipah virus infection are Fruit farmers, traders, palm wine brewers, Cattle herders, especially pig farmers and Tourists. Nipah virus exhibits remarkable zoonotic versatility, with transmission pathways between humans and animals varying based on geography. Factors such as diverse livestock breeding practices, local eating habits, and the interplay with the natural reservoir - fruit bats - contribute to this fascinating mosaic of infection routes. Unravelling these complexities is crucial for designing effective control strategies tailored to specific regions. Following exposure to the Nipah virus (NiV), symptoms typically appear within two weeks, ranging from 4 days to 2 months. Fever, headache, dizziness, and vomiting are common initial signs, potentially progressing to severe encephalitis. A promising development in the fight against Nipah virus emerges as the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) initiates an early-phase clinical trial for an investigational vaccine.

Monitoring and analysis of pathogenic microorganisms and resistance genes.

The objectives are to improve the rapid identification method of microbial risk and cut off the route of transmission of resistance genes. When new pathogenic microorganisms are found, intervention can be carried out as early as possible to identify the risk of potential pathogen transmission, and timely cut off the transmission route. Hospital air samples were collected to analyse the distribution of environmental pathogenic microorganisms and the characteristics of ARGs resistance genes. The air samples were collected from 12 sampling sites in the Affiliated Hospital of Yangzhou University. In the infusion room, general ward and intensive care unit, no significant difference was found in microorganisms, and no significant difference was found in microbial resistance genes. There were some differences in resistance genes between east and west districts. Combined with the detection of pathogenic microorganisms and resistance genes in our hospital, it is necessary to improve the daily disinfection measures such as air conditioning and fresh air equipment, cut off the infection route, block the transmission of resistance genes, and monitor pathogens and resistance genes in airborne diseases.

Investigation on KAP Model of Urban Residents in Prevention and Control of COVID-19

Objective: To investigate the knowledge, attitude and practice of the residents in Changxing community in the prevention and control of novel coronavirus pneumonia, and put forward targeted suggestions for formulating epidemic prevention and control measures. Methods: Convenience sampling method was used to invite residents to fill in the self-designed questionnaire online. Results: Total of 294 valid questionnaires were obtained. Among them, the awareness rates of the infectious source, transmission route, incubation period and epidemic situation of COVID-19 were 84.7%, 94.2%, 90.1% and 83.0% respectively. The proportions of judging that COVID-19 has high infectious characteristics, low mortality and high cure rate were 89.5%, 40.1% and 62.6%. The proportions of mastering the knowledge of preventive behaviors such as wearing masks, avoiding family and friends' gatherings, and washing hands correctly were 98.0%, 96.6% and 90.8%; The level of attitude towards epidemic prevention and control measures and awareness of prevention behavior exceeded 90%. Conclusion: The knowledge, attitude and practice of residents in Changxing community on COVID-19 are good.

A Reaction-diffusion System Modeling the Transmission of Typhoid Fever in a Periodic Environment

Typhoid fever is a life-threatening infection caused by the bacterium Salmonella Typhi, and it is still an important issue in developing countries. There are two infection routes of Typhoid fever, namely, the human-to-human transmission and the environment-to-human transmission. It is evident that people living near rivers may have a higher rate of typhoid infection, and temperature changes also have significant impacts on Typhoid transmission dynamics. In the model, the population of human will be divided into susceptible individuals, infected individuals, carrier individuals, individuals under treatment, and recovered individuals. Then a periodic dispersion-reaction system is used to describe the transport and the interactions between human and bacteria in the environment. The solution maps of the proposed periodic dispersion-reaction system lack the compactness since the population under treatment has no diffusion term, which makes analysis more difficult. After the feasible domain is chosen carefully, the eventually boundedness of the solutions can be established, and the loss of compactness is overcome if the initial data is chosen from the feasible domain. In order to introduce the reproduction number &amp;lt;I&amp;gt;R&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;0&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/I&amp;gt;, the linearized system around the disease-free state is constructed, and the basic reproduction number is defined as the spectral radius of the next generation operator. Then the comparison principle and persistence theory can be utilized to establish that the index &amp;lt;I&amp;gt;R&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;0&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/I&amp;gt; completely determines the threshold behavior of the typhoid spread. Brief mathematical and biological interpretations are also presented.

Virological, innate, and adaptive immune profiles shaped by variation in route and age of host in murine cytomegalovirus infection.

The majority of experiments modeling human cytomegalovirus (hCMV) infection in mice have been carried out using intraperitoneal infection in sexually mature adult mice, which stands in contrast to the large number of humans being infected with human CMV at a young age, most likely via bodily fluids through the nasopharyngeal/oral route. This study examined the impact of the choice of age and route of infection in modeling CMV infection in mice. By comparing young, prepubescent to older sexually mature counterparts, infected either via the intranasal or intraperitoneal route, we discovered substantial differences in deployment and response intensity of different arms of the immune system in systemic control of the virus; tissue responses, by contrast, appeared similar between ages and infection routes.

Genetic diversity of hepatitis C virus and the prevalence of resistance mutations to NS5A inhibitors in the Krasnoyarsk region

To research the molecular genetic characteristics of the HCV population circulating among HIV‐infected residents of the Krasnoyarsk Territory, including analysis of resistance‐associated mutations to NS5A inhibitors. Total RNA was isolated from 94 blood plasma samples from HIV/HCVinfected residents of the region and the nucleotide sequences of the Core/E1 gene and NS5A gene regions were obtained and deciphered, which were used for genotyping and searching for resistance mutations.In the HCV samples studied, the circulation of five virus subtypes was recorded: 1b (47,9 %), 3a (37,2 %), 1a (10,6 %), 2a (3,2 %) and 2k (1,1 %). Phylogenetic analysis of HCVs revealed partial clustering within subtypes 1a and 3a on a territorial basis. HCV subtypes 1b, 2a and 2k were grouped with other HCVs previously isolated in Russia, Armenia and Kyrgyzstan. Among the HCVs studied, no clusters were found that were common to HIV‐infected individuals with the same route of infection. Among patients who had no experience of taking DAAs, HCV resistance mutations in the NS5A region were found in 42,3 % of cases for those infected with subtype 3a virus and in 75,6 % of cases for those infected with HCV subtype 1b.The analysis of the diversity and occurrence of mutations of HCV drug resistance to direct antiviral drugs is extremely important for the development of tactics for effective treatment of CHC. The high prevalence of polymorphic mutations that affect sensitivity to DAAs indicates the relevance of introducing HCV resistance analysis into clinical practice.

Presence of Mycoplasma bovis in Bulk Tank Milk and Associated Risk Factor Analysis in Serbian Dairy Farms.

Mycoplasma bovis (M. bovis) is a significant pathogen responsible for highly transmissible mastitis in cattle globally. It primarily spreads through colostrum, milk, and semen. Cows with persistent infections act as carriers, intermittently releasing the pathogen, making their milk a pivotal factor in infection transmission. Given the limited seroprevalence surveys in Serbia, this study aimed to detect M. bovis presence in bulk tank milk (BTM), determine route shedding, and evaluate infection risks. BTM samples were collected from 115 dairy farms across Serbia, with M. bovis DNA detected in 11 out of the 115 samples by real-time PCR. Additionally, M. bovis was detected in 1.30% of nasal swabs sampled from apparently healthy animals. A univariate analysis of the risk factors associated with M. bovis presence in the BTM samples revealed correlations with factors such as the breed, farm seropositivity, pre-milking and post-milking disinfection practices, farm type, cow population, milk yield, number of cows in the BTM samples, and parity. Seropositive farms exhibited the highest likelihood of M. bovis presence in milk. Moreover, pre- and post-milking disinfection practices and highly productive cows yielding over 8000 L of milk were identified as risk factors for PCR-positive BTM. In a multivariable mixed regression analysis, a risk factor for the presence of M. bovis infection in the BTM sample was the Holstein breed. These findings underscore a relatively high prevalence of M. bovis in BTM within Serbian dairy farms, suggesting a potential risk for M. bovis spreading through milk and oral route of calves' infection.

Efficiency of different Orf virus infection routes for the experimental reproduction of contagious ecthyma in lambs

Efficiency of different Orf virus infection routes for the experimental reproduction of contagious ecthyma in lambs

Studies on the transmission of Squash Leaf Curl China Virus causing yellow mosaic and leaf curl disease in pumpkin

Viruses pose a significant threat to pumpkin cultivation, leading to substantial yield losses and reduced fruit quality. Understanding the transmission dynamics and disease progression of Squash Leaf Curl China Virus (SLCCV), a major virus affecting pumpkin, will contribute to developing effective management strategies for this crop. Our study aimed to develop an efficient mechanical inoculation method for SLCCV in pumpkin and investigate whitefly transmission. Mechanical inoculation was assessed using different buffers (I, II, and III) for preparing the viral inoculum. Buffer III, consisting of phosphate buffer, β-mercaptoethanol, and Na2SO3, showed the highest severity of symptoms and incidence of infection in the susceptible pumpkin variety Pusa Vishwas. The summer season was the most favourable for virus transmission, and plant parts such as expanded leaves, middle leaves, and stems exhibited higher infectivity than other parts. A minimum of two whiteflies per plant successfully transmitted the virus to pumpkin plants, resulting in yellow mosaic symptoms and stunted growth. The transmission efficiency increased with an increase in number of whiteflies per plant. A minimum acquisition access feeding period (AAP) of 10 min. and an inoculation access feeding period (IAP) of 24 h were optimal for whitefly-mediated transmission of SLCCV. These findings highlight the importance of vector control strategies, such as insecticides and physical barriers to prevent whitefly-mediated transmission of SLCCV in pumpkin. This is the first report of sap transmission of SLCCV in pumpkin, emphasizing the importance of developing and implementing comprehensive control strategies that address all possible routes of infection.

Drug resistance and influencing factors in HIV-1-infected individuals under antiretroviral therapy in Guangxi, China.

To assess the profiles and determinants of drug resistance in HIV-1-infected individuals undergoing ART in Guangxi. Samples and data were collected from HIV-1-infected individuals experiencing virological failure post-ART from 14 cities in Guangxi. Sequencing of the HIV-1 pol gene was conducted, followed by analysis for drug resistance mutations using the Stanford University HIV Drug Resistance Database. Logistic regression was employed to identify potential risk factors associated with both HIV drug resistance and mortality. A total of 8963 individuals with pol sequences were included in this study. The overall prevalence of HIV-1 drug resistance (HIVDR) was 42.43% (3808/8963), showing a decrease from 59.62% to 41.40% from 2016 to 2023. Factors such as being aged ≥50 years, male, Han nationality, lower education levels, occupations including workers, peasants and children, AIDS, pre-treatment CD4 T cell counts <200 cells/mm3, infection with CRF01_AE and CRF55_01B subtypes, and ART regimen lamivudine/zidovudine/nevirapine were associated with higher susceptibility to HIVDR. The common mutations were M184V (17.38%) and K103N (22.14%). Additionally, the prevalence of M184V, S68G, M41L and G190A were different between the Han and Zhuang populations. Factors including age, gender, ethnicity, education level, occupation, infectious route, clinical stage, viral load, subtype, ART regimen and HIVDR showed significant associations with mortality. The factors contributing to drug resistance in the HIV-1 ART individuals in Guangxi appear to be notably intricate. Continuous reinforcement of drug resistance surveillance is imperative, accompanied by the optimization of ART regimens to mitigate virological failures effectively.

Transmission dynamics of Zika virus with multiple infection routes and a case study in Brazil

The Zika virus (ZIKV) is a serious global public health crisis. A major control challenge is its multiple transmission modes. This paper aims to simulate the transmission patterns of ZIKV using a dynamic process-based epidemiological model written in ordinary differential equations, which incorporates the human-to-mosquito infection by bites and sewage, mosquito-to-human infection by bites, and human-to-human infection by sex. Mathematical analyses are carried out to calculate the basic reproduction number and backward bifurcation, and prove the existence and stability of the equilibria. The model is validated with infection data by applying it to the 2015–2016 ZIKV epidemic in Brazil. The results indicate that the reproduction number is estimated to be 2.13, in which the contributions by mosquito bite, sex and sewage account for 85.7%, 3.5% and 10.8%, respectively. This number and the morbidity rate are most sensitive to parameters related to mosquito ecology, rather than asymptomatic or human-to-human transmission. Multiple transmission routes and suitable temperature exacerbate ZIKV infection in Brazil, and the vast majority of human infection cases were prevented by the intervention implemented. These findings may provide new insights to improve the risk assessment of ZIKV infection.

Mathematical Analysis on a General Delayed HBV Model with Capsids and Two Infection Routes

Mathematical Analysis on a General Delayed HBV Model with Capsids and Two Infection Routes

A systematic review and meta-analysis on the efficacy of vaccination against colibacillosis in broiler production.

Colibacillosis, a disease caused by Escherichia coli in broiler chickens has serious implications on food safety, security, and economic sustainability. Antibiotics are required for treating the disease, while vaccination and biosecurity are used for its prevention. This systematic review and meta-analysis, conducted under the COST Action CA18217-European Network for Optimization of Veterinary Antimicrobial Treatment (ENOVAT), aimed to assess the efficacy of E. coli vaccination in broiler production and provide evidence-based recommendations. A comprehensive search of bibliographic databases, including, PubMed, CAB Abstracts, Web of Science and Agricola, yielded 2,722 articles. Following a defined protocol, 39 studies were selected for data extraction. Most of the studies were experimental infection trials, with only three field studies identified, underscoring the need for more field-based research. The selected studies reported various types of vaccines, including killed (n = 5), subunit (n = 8), outer membrane vesicles/protein-based (n = 4), live/live-attenuated (n = 16), and CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (ODN) (n = 6) vaccines. The risk of bias assessment revealed that a significant proportion of studies reporting mortality (92.3%) or feed conversion ratio (94.8%) as outcomes, had "unclear" regarding bias. The meta-analysis, focused on live-attenuated and CpG ODN vaccines, demonstrated a significant trend favoring both vaccination types in reducing mortality. However, the review also highlighted the challenges in reproducing colibacillosis in experimental setups, due to considerable variation in challenge models involving different routes of infection, predisposing factors, and challenge doses. This highlights the need for standardizing the challenge model to facilitate comparisons between studies and ensure consistent evaluation of vaccine candidates. While progress has been made in the development of E. coli vaccines for broilers, further research is needed to address concerns such as limited heterologous protection, practicability for application, evaluation of efficacy in field conditions and adoption of novel approaches.

Molecular Epidemiology of HIV-1 Subtypes and Primary Antiretroviral Resistance Profiles in Northern Cyprus: First Data Series.

The distribution of human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) subtypes indicates difference from region to region and in risk groups acquiring the disease worldwide. Although subtype C is more in terms of total cases, subtype B is dominant in certain regions, especially in western and central Europe. Molecular epidemiological studies are essential for the control, effective treatment, and understanding in transmission routes of HIV-1 infection. This study aims to determine the molecular epidemiology and antiretroviral drug resistance profiles of HIV-1 in northern Cyprus. The study involved 71 naive HIV-positive patients diagnosed in northern Cyprus between 2016 and 2022. HIV-1 subtypes and circulating recombinant forms (CRFs) were identified by phylogenetic analysis (neighbor-joining method) of pol gene sequences. Drug resistance mutations were analyzed using the World Health Organization (WHO) lists of mutations for surveillance. The Stanford University HIVdb program was used to interpret drug resistance mutations. In our study, 40 of 71 samples were successfully sequenced. Subtype B of HIV-1 was dominant with a rate of 52.5%, followed by CRF02_AG (20%) and G (7.5%) subtypes. The rate of subtype B (71.4%) in northern Cyprus was significantly higher than in the other country of origin (p = .028). Antiretroviral drug resistance was found in 15% of the sequenced serum samples. Nucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI), non-nucleoside nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI), and protease inhibitor (PI) resistance rates were 10% (4/40), 7.5% (3/40), and 2.5% (1/40), respectively. According to the results, it is noteworthy that the dominant subtype circulating in northern Cyprus is the B subtype, and CRFs were detected at a higher rate than expected.