Route Of Infection Research Articles

A Chain of Events Leading to Posttraumatic Subacute Meningitis.

There are few reports that discuss the nebulous entity known as posttraumatic subacute meningitis. Herein, we describe a case where a male was found deceased with Streptococcus pyogenes meningitis 7 days after experiencing head trauma inflicted with a tow chain. Computed tomography scan prior to death revealed a scalp laceration with subcutaneous gas and a subdural hematoma. On autopsy, the lacerations had exposed the cranial bone, but no fracture was identified. Purulence and a pinpoint defect were observed on the dura. Histologic sections of the dura and brain showed a chronic inflammatory infiltrate, ventriculitis, and vascular involvement by bacteria. Toxicology studies were positive for methamphetamine, fentanyl, and oxycodone. Post-mortem cerebrospinal fluid and blood cultures grew S. pyogenes, complementing the gram-staining of the bacteria seen in the brain sections.While the overlying parietal bone in the area of purulence was notably thinned, a direct route of infection from the soft tissue laceration to the meninges was not grossly identified. The middle ear mastoid cells did not display purulence, and the antemortem computed tomography scan did not provide any support for an otorhinolaryngeal source for the Streptococcus meningitis. To our knowledge, this is the first published report linking head trauma to S. pyogenes meningitis.

Indirect contacts between Danish pig farms – what are the frequencies and risk-reducing measures, and how can they be used in simulation models?

BackgroundInformation on indirect contacts (e.g. contact with visitors and non-porcine species on farms, shared staff and equipment, contact with trucks) is often poorly recorded even though it constitutes a risk in terms of disease transmission. The aim of the present study was to quantify the number of indirect contacts and associated biosecurity measures in Danish pig herds. A questionnaire survey was conducted among both veterinarians and pig producers in Denmark during 2022–2023. The veterinary questionnaire resulted in 143 answers, representing the Veterinary Health Advisory Service contracts for 53% of non-hobby pig farms. The questionnaire for the pig producers resulted in 373 valid responses and a final response rate of 18%. The results from the veterinary questionnaire provide information on veterinary contacts between pig farms and also estimates on the agreement between registration data and real-life observations.ResultsThe questionnaire for veterinarians stated that the majority of veterinarians specialized within pig practice would visit > 3 pig farms per day, with pig farms being located with an average distance between the farms of 15 km. The veterinarians presumed wind, movement of pigs and trucks transporting pigs to be the main routes of PRRS infection. The questionnaire for pig producers provides updated data on indirect contacts (e.g. contact with visitors and non-porcine species on farms, sharing of staff and equipment, procedures for purchase/delivery of pigs and contact with trucks) stratified in terms of farm type and production type. Among respondents, 10% of the pig producers shared staff, while 2% shared equipment (washing robots) with other farms, excluding farms in a joint operation. When purchasing gilts, 70% of the participating pig producers introduced gilts in line with recommendations for strict quarantine for a minimum of 42 days. The delivery of the pigs varied, depending on the type of pigs being delivered: finishers were typically delivered for slaughter through delivery facilities into a (usually empty) slaughterhouse truck, while sows for slaughter were typically delivered by means of a delivery truck offsite into a slaughterhouse truck (usually with other pigs on board).ConclusionSince the inclusion of indirect contacts in disease spread models relies on valid data, the present study provided valuable data regarding the frequencies and biosecurity measures of indirect contacts between Danish pig herds, which may be useful in the parametrization of computational epidemiological models.

Understanding Host–Pathogen Interactions in Congenital Chagas Disease Through Transcriptomic Approaches

Chagas disease, caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, is a parasitic zoonosis with significant health impacts, particularly in Latin America. While traditionally associated with vector-borne transmission, increased migration has expanded its reach into urban and non-endemic regions. Congenital transmission has become a critical route of infection, involving intricate maternal–fetal immune interactions that challenge diagnosis and treatment. This review synthesizes findings from three RNA-seq studies that explore the molecular underpinnings of congenital Chagas disease, emphasizing differentially expressed genes (DEGs) implicated in host–pathogen interactions. The DAVID tool analysis highlighted the overexpression of genes associated with the innate immune response, including pro-inflammatory cytokines that drive chemotaxis and neutrophil activation. Additionally, calcium-dependent pathways critical for parasite invasion were modulated. T. cruzi exploits the maternal–fetal immune axis to establish a tolerogenic environment conducive to congenital transmission. Alterations in placental angiogenesis, cellular regeneration, and metabolic processes further demonstrate the parasite’s ability to manipulate host responses for its survival and persistence. These findings underscore the complex interplay between the host and pathogen that facilitates disease progression. Future research integrating transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolomic approaches is essential to unravel the molecular mechanisms underlying congenital Chagas disease, with a particular focus on the contributions of genetic diversity and non-coding RNAs in immune evasion and disease pathogenesis.

Interpretation of "Expert recommendations for the prevention of common respiratory viral infections in neonates": problems faced by respiratory syncytial virus infection in neonates

Neonates are susceptible to respiratory viral infections, with outbreaks reported in areas with a high population of neonates, such as postpartum care centers and neonatal wards. While specific antiviral drugs are currently available for influenza, symptomatic supportive treatment remains the primary approach for respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), making prevention particularly important. The article closely follows the "Expert recommendations for the prevention of common respiratory viral infections in neonates" and provides an in-depth interpretation of recent breakthroughs in RSV prevention. It discusses the physiological and immunological characteristics of neonates, the disease burden and transmission routes of RSV infection, the main clinical manifestations and long-term effects of RSV infection in neonates, as well as specific preventive measures against RSV and practical recommendations and prevention experiences for RSV from abroad to lay a foundation for RSV prevention and control in neonates in China.

Pathogenesis of bovine H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b infection in Macaques.

Since early 2022 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus infections have been reported in wild aquatic birds and poultry throughout the United States (US) with spillover into several mammalian species1-6. In March 2024, HPAIV H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b was first detected in dairy cows in Texas, US and continues to circulate on dairy farms in multiple states7,8. Milk production and quality are diminished in infected dairy cows, with high virus titers in milk raising concerns of exposure to mammals including humans through consumption9-12. Here we investigated routes of infection with bovine HPAIV H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b in cynomolgus macaques, a surrogate model for human infection13. We show that intranasal or intratracheal inoculation of macaques could cause systemic infection resulting in mild and severe respiratory disease, respectively. In contrast, infection by the orogastric route resulted in limited infection and seroconversion of macaques which remained subclinical.

Extracutaneous sporotrichosis.

SUMMARYSporotrichosis is a subacute-to-chronic infection endemic to tropical and subtropical regions. It usually involves subcutaneous tissue but can occasionally cause extracutaneous infections, especially in hyperendemic areas. Extracutaneous infections are classified based on the anatomic location of the lesion and the route of infection (primary or multifocal). The clinical forms are as follows: (i) pulmonary (primary or multifocal); (ii) osteoarticular (primary or multifocal); (iii) ocular (ocular adnexal lesions including eyelid lesions, conjunctivitis and dacryocystitis, and intraocular infections); (iv) central nervous system; and (v) mucosal (primary or disseminated). Multifocal clinical presentations are observed mainly in immunocompromised individuals. The diagnosis must be confirmed in the laboratory by mycological examination of the clinical samples. Itraconazole and amphotericin B are the most commonly used antifungal agents for treating pulmonary, osteoarticular, ocular, and mucosal forms. Treatment may include surgical excision of the initial lesions in pulmonary and osteoarticular forms. The treatment of neurological involvement is far from optimal and is associated with a high mortality rate despite long treatment periods.

Detection, quantification, and characterization of airborne Aspergillus flavus within the corn canopy

Aflatoxin contamination of corn can occur when developing kernels are infected by the plant pathogen Aspergillus flavus. One route of infection is from airborne conidia. We executed a series of experiments within the corn canopy during two growing seasons and in two states to document the abundance and dynamics of the airborne A. flavus population. We did not observe any significant diurnal changes in the conidial density (p = 0.171) or any effect of sampler height (p = 0.882) within the canopy. Significant changes (p < 0.001) were noted during the season, with a trend towards increased airborne populations with later stages of corn development and more than a 20-fold increase from July to August. The median aflatoxigenicity of airborne isolates from a corn canopy in Texas was about 50 times higher than the corresponding population in Mississippi. It was also noteworthy that highly aflatoxigenic, weakly sporulating S-morphotypes accounted for 14–30% of the airborne isolates in Mississippi at a site with historically rare abundance of S-morphotypes. The genetic diversity was high among the 140 analyzed airborne isolates, with 76 unique haplotypes identified and 55 haplotypes occurring only in 1 isolate. Even in the context of this highly diverse population, a haplotype matching that of a commercial biocontrol strain was found in 13 of the 70 isolates from Mississippi and 1 of the 70 isolates from Texas. The airborne A. flavus population is genetically diverse (Shannon’s index = 1.4 to 1.6), similar to grain samples in other surveys, and much less aflatoxigenic in Mississippi than in Texas.

Clinical and Microbiological Profile of Melioidosis in a Tertiary Care Hospital in Kerala, India.

Melioidosis is a neglected tropical infection caused by the Gram-negative bacterium Burkholderia pseudomallei, which is found in soil and water across tropical countries. The infection spectrum ranges from mild localized lesions to severe sepsis. The clinical presentation, severity, and outcome are influenced by the route of infection, bacterial load, strain virulence, and specific virulence genes of B. pseudomallei. This case series discusses nine melioidosis cases, highlighting the clinical and diagnostic challenges. It underscores the necessity for a high level of clinical suspicion to ensure a timely diagnosis and the prompt initiation of treatment.

Co-infections of Enterococcus cecorum and various avian pathogens resulted in varying rates of SPF broilers with an E. cecorum infection

Enterococcus cecorum infections can be experimentally reproduced after oral inoculation. Co-infections of E. cecorum with other avian pathogens might increase the proportion of broilers with E. cecorum infections. The aim of the study was to examine via which infection route E. cecorum is capable of causing E. cecorum infections and which co-infections exacerbate E. cecorum infections. Two experiments, each with 12 groups, were conducted. Per group 40 SPF broilers were inoculated intravenously, orally or via aerosol with E. cecorum alone, a negative control group was included and in eight groups the effect of co-infections was studied. In experiment 1, infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), Newcastle disease virus (NDV) vaccine, reovirus, chicken anaemia virus (CAV) were inoculated prior to oral or aerosol challenge with E. cecorum. While in experiment 2, E. cecorum was given after administration of dexamethasone or inoculation of CAV or combinations of IBV or NDV with Mycoplasma synoviae (M.s.). Typical E. cecorum lesions were reproduced via all applicated infection routes. The proportion of lesions were highest in the intravenous inoculated groups, respectively 0.25 (95% Confidence Interval (CI):0.127-0.412) and 0.275 (95% CI:0.146-0.439) in experiment 1 and 2. More lesions were observed in experiment 2, while the proportion of lesions after oral and aerosol inoculation did not differ from each other in both experiments. The proportion of lesions was not exacerbated after co-infections of E. cecorum with various avian pathogens. Only the proportion of E. cecorum reisolations was exacerbated after inoculation with CAV or M.s. in combination with IBV or NDV.

Regional molecular transmission characteristics of newly reported HIV-infected students aged ≥18 years in Nanjing City from 2016 to 2022

To analyze the transmission characteristics of newly reported HIV-infected students aged ≥18 years in Nanjing City from 2016 to 2022 and provide evidence for AIDS publicity and intervention among young students. The pol region sequences of newly reported HIV-infected students and non-student HIV-infected individuals in Nanjing City from 2016 to 2022 were collected, and the BLAST tool was used to search the published global non-Nanjing reported HIV infection sequences in the LANL HIV database. The basic molecular transmission network and regional molecular transmission network were constructed using the HIV-TRACE in a pairwise genetic distance threshold of 1.0%. 332 sequences of infected students aged≥18 years in Nanjing City, 1 904 sequences of non-student-infected individuals in Nanjing City and 1 698 non-Nanjing-infected individuals were obtained. Among the 332 infected students, the main route of infection was homosexual (96.39%), and the subtypes were CRF01_AE (37.95%), CRF07_BC (37.65%) and CRF105_0107 (10.24%). There were 890 sequences in the regional molecular transmission network, of which 21.80% were infected students in Nanjing City, 39.89% were non-student-infected individuals in Nanjing City, and 38.31% were non-Nanjing-infected individuals. In the CRF105_0107 transmission cluster, non-student-infected individuals from Nanjing accounted for 66.95% (81/121), while in the CRF07_BC transmission cluster, non-Nanjing-infected individuals accounted for 56.66% (200/353). There were 1 644 edges connected to infected students within the regional molecular transmission network, with local transmission accounting for 64.72% and regional transmission accounting for 35.28%. Regional transmission was mainly in Guangdong Province (19.83%) and other cities in Jiangsu Province (4.50%). The HIV-1 subtypes of newly reported HIV-infected students aged≥18 years in Nanjing City are mainly CRF01_AE, CRF07_BC and CRF105_0107, with local transmission as the main transmission characteristics. There is transmission between students and non-students.

A Review on Reliable and Standardized Animal Models to Study the Pathogenesis of Schmallenberg Virus in Ruminant Natural Host Species.

In the late summer of 2011, the Netherlands reported a cluster of reduced milk yield, fever, and diarrhea in dairy cattle. In March 2012, congenital malformations appeared, and Schmallenberg virus (SBV) was identified, becoming one of the few orthobunyaviruses distributed in Europe. Initially, little was known about the pathogenesis and epidemiology of these viruses in the European context, so assumptions were largely extrapolated from related viruses and other regions worldwide. To study SBV's pathogenesis and its ability to cross the placental barrier, standardized and repeatable models that mimic clinical signs observed in the field are essential. This review discusses some of the latest experimental designs for infectious disease challenges involving SBV, covering infectious doses, routes of infection, inoculum preparation, and origin. Special attention is given to the placental crossing associated with SBV.

Construction of Microbial Consortium FireFighter-C for Controlling Fire Blight Disease and Its Control Effect

Fire blight is a bacterial disease caused by Erwinia amylovora that infects plants of the family Rosaceae, causing economic losses in apple- and pear-cultivating areas. In Korea, copper-based compounds and antibioticbased control agents are used to control fire blight disease. However, the development of new control agents is necessary owing to the fact that preserving agricultural environments is vital for sustainable agriculture. In this study, we developed a microbial consortium, FireFighter-C, by selecting four highly competitive microorganisms against seven sugar sources present in flowers, which are the initial routes of fire blight pathogen infection. Although individual microorganisms had no direct antagonistic effect on fire blight, disease control (89.75% improvement compared to the control group) was confirmed when the microbial consortium was applied to flowers. This study could potentially serve as an important reference for the development of microbial consortia in various fields as well as plant disease control.

Etiology, clinical manifestations and prevention of perianal infection in patients with hematological malignancies

Introduction. Perianal infection (PI) in patients with hematological malignancies is characterized by a wide spectrum of pathogens and a variety of clinical manifestations and mechanisms of development of the infectious process.Aim: to study the pathogenetic mechanisms of PI development in patients with hematological malignancies and to develop prevention tactics.Materials and methods. The prospective study included 132 patients with hematological malignancies who had episodes of PI. The infectious process in the pararectal fi ber was registered based on the data of clinical examination or magnetic resonance imaging. Sources of infection and microbiologic results were studied.Results: Two main mechanisms of PI development were revealed, the frequency of which was statistically significantly different depending on the presence of neutropenia (p &lt; 0.0001, odds ratio (OR) = 24.42 (confidence interval (CI) 95% [9.82–60.74]). In PI episodes that developed against the background of neutropenia, the predominant mechanism of infection was the penetration of microorganisms through broken tissue barriers (75 %): anal fissures were the entry gate of infection in 62.9 % of episodes; perianal ulcers and skin erosions — in 12.1 %. The alternative route of infection (cryptogladular mechanism) was registered in the majority of patients without neutropenia (66.7 %) and was represented by the involvement of crypts of the anal canal (28.6 %) or the presence of pararectal fistulas (38.1 %). Clinical manifestations of PI were associated with leukocyte count (p &lt; 0.0001) and mechanism of infection (p &lt; 0.0001). The median leukocyte count in patients with abscesses (2.12×109 /L) was statistically significantly higher than in infiltrates (0.57×109 /L) and necrosis (0.74×109 /L). The main source of infection in infiltrates was anal fissures (70.4 %), while in abscesses the main sources of infection were crypts of the anal canal (39 %) and pararectal fistulas (36 %). The main causative agents of PI were Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli (43 %), Klebsiella spp. (15 %), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (4.4 %)), and Enterococci (12.5 %). P. aeruginosa was isolated more often in necrosis (22 %) than in other clinical forms of PI (3–5 %) (p = 0.0033), while the frequency of detection of other bacteria was independent of the clinical manifestations of PI. PI was a microbiologically proven source of sepsis in 9.5 % of PI episodes. The probability of PI-associated bloodstream infections was highest at 5 days and was significantly higher in patients with neutropenia (10 % vs 2 %) (p = 0.0044).Conclusion: Different mechanisms of pararectal cell infection should be taken into account when forming a strategy for the prevention of PI.

Bacterial etiology among diarrheal cases

Objectives The main objective of this article was to check the bacterial etiology to find out the routes of infection, which might help with control strategies. As Nalbari is one of the most common flood-affected districts in Assam, India, we chose Nalbari district as our study area. The socioeconomic factor enhances the transmission of bacteria easily, as every year during floods, pictures of water from neighboring hilly states or countries (e.g., Bhutan)—rain, waterlogging, and more—are seen. Material and Methods Stool samples or rectal swabs were collected from the patients who had reported to the District Public Health Laboratory(DPHL) with acute diarrheal disease in Nalbari. Patients or their attendant’s consent was collected prior to collecting samples. Samples were processed for culture, gram stain microscopy, and biochemical tests to isolate the organism. Results Test results showed Escherichia coli (E. coli) 40.95%, Salmonella 2.86%, Shigella 1.42%, and Campylobacter 0.48%. No other bacteria were isolated during the study period. Maximum cases were reported during the rainy season. Conclusion E. coli can transmit through fecal-oral means; Salmonella through contaminated food, water, contact with infected people/animals, and so on; Shigella through fecal-oral, contaminated food, water, oral-anal sexual routes, and more; and Campylobacter through contaminated or raw food, milk, water, and so on. This study concludes that water can easily transmit bacteria to other people. Health hygiene, economic condition, living behavior, awareness, and administration’s activities all might play an important role in minimizing this burden. Making plans prior to flood by administration and more research studies can help in controlling this disease burden.

Genetic basis of resistance in hosts facing alternative infection strategies by a virulent bacterial pathogen.

Having alternative infection routes is thought to help parasites circumvent host resistance, provided that these routes are associated with different host resistance loci. This study tests this postulate by examining whether alternate infection routes of the parasite Pasteuria ramosa are linked to distinct resistance loci in its crustacean host, Daphnia magna. We focus on the P. ramosa isolate P15, which can attach and penetrate the host through either the hindgut or the foregut. Using a global panel of 174 D. magna genotypes supplemented with breeding experiments, we analyzed resistance patterns for each of these infection routes. Our findings confirm our hypothesis: in D. magna, hindgut attachment is determined by the D locus, while foregut attachment is controlled by a newly identified G locus. We established a gene model for the G locus that indicated Mendelian segregation and epistatic interaction with at least one other resistance locus for P. ramosa, the C locus. Using genomic Pool-sequencing data, we localized the G locus within a known Pasteuria Resistance Complex on chromosome 4 of D. magna, whereas the D locus is on chromosome 7. Two candidate genes for the G locus, belonging to the Glycosyltransferase gene family, were identified. Our study sheds new light on host-parasite coevolution and enhances our understanding of how parasites evolve infection strategies.

Declining trend of HTLV-1 among organ/ tissue donors in Iranian Tissue Bank between 2014–2021

BackgroundHuman T-cell Lymphotropic Virus type-1 (HTLV-1) infection is associated with serious disorders, including Adult T-cell Leukemia/Lymphoma (ATLL) and HTLV-1–associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP). In addition to sexual, vertical, parenteral, and blood transfusion, organ/tissue transplantation is considered as a transmission route of HTLV infection. Given the substantial risk of HTLV-1 transmission and the subsequent development of HAM/TSP (approximately 40%) in kidney transplant recipients, pre-transplant donor screening is crucial. The present study aimed to investigate the prevalence of HTLV-1 in potential organ/tissue donors referred to the Iranian Tissue Bank and Research Center (ITBRC).Materials and methodsThe study population was potential organ and/or tissue donors referred to ITBRC between 2014 and 2021, including two groups of brain death (potential donors of organs and/or tissues) and circulatory death donors (potential tissue donors from Iranian Legal Medicine Organization). Initial screening was performed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and positive cases were confirmed for HTLV-1 infection with polymerase chain reaction (PCR).Results111 out of 3,814 donors were positive for HTLV-1 (3%). The rate of positive tests between 2014 and 2017 was 6%, which was significantly higher than the positive tests percentage between 2017 and 2021 with 0.5% (P-value < 0.001). The rate of test positivity in females was 4% compared to 2% in males (P-value = 0.001). Furthermore, individuals diagnosed with brain death exhibited a significantly lower likelihood of HTLV-1 infection (0.2%) compared to cases with circulatory death (4%) (P-value < 0.001).ConclusionConsidering the contraindication of organ/tissue donation from donors with HTLV-1 positive test, these findings give an insight into the prevalence of HTLV-1 among potential organ/tissue donors in Iran. Moreover, the higher prevalence of HTLV-1 infection in circulatory death donors from Iranian Legal Medicine Organization urges for cautious evaluation in these donors.

Association Between Dietary Habit Changes and COVID-19 Prophylaxis During the Pandemic Among Japanese Maintenance Hemodialysis Patients.

Following COVID-19, dietary habits have been altered frequently along with other societal lifestyle modifications. However, changes in the dietary habits of maintenance hemodialysis patients (MHPs) beforeand during COVID-19have not been investigated. A total of 132 MHPs were assessed for changes in their dietary habits before and during the pandemic and their association with COVID-19 prevention. Logistic regression models were used to calculate the adjusted odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for the risk of COVID-19. A multivariate logistic regression analysis was performed. Approximately 27% (36 of 132) of the MHPs modified their dietary habits. Following COVID-19, the frequency of eating out decreased, and that of eating in increased significantly for dinner. However, there was no change in dietary habits for breakfast and lunch. Multivariate analysis revealed an inverse correlation between the number of eating takeout and COVID-19; that is, more eating of takeout was associated with a lower risk of contracting COVID-19. Comparing before and after the pandemic, there was a shift from eating out to eating in for dinner. However, the frequency of eating takeout played a role in preventing COVID-19, suggesting that the person preparing the meal may be a more important factor than where the meal is eaten when the main route of infection is household transmission.

Helicobacter pylori: Routes of Infection, Antimicrobial Resistance, and Alternative Therapies as a Means to Develop Infection Control.

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a Gram-negative, spiral-shaped bacterium that colonizes the gastric epithelium and is associated with a range of gastrointestinal disorders, exhibiting a global prevalence of approximately 50%. Despite the availability of treatment options, H. pylori frequently reemerges and demonstrates increasing antibiotic resistance, which diminishes the efficacy of conventional therapies. Consequently, it is imperative to explore non-antibiotic treatment alternatives to mitigate the inappropriate use of antibiotics. This review examines H. pylori infection, encompassing transmission pathways, treatment modalities, antibiotic resistance, and eradication strategies. Additionally, it discusses alternative therapeutic approaches such as probiotics, anti-biofilm agents, phytotherapy, phototherapy, phage therapy, lactoferrin therapy, and vaccine development. These strategies aim to reduce antimicrobial resistance and enhance treatment outcomes for H. pylori infections. While alternative therapies can maintain low bacterial levels, they do not achieve complete eradication of H. pylori. These therapies are designed to bolster the immune response, minimize side effects, and provide gastroprotective benefits, rendering them suitable for adjunctive use alongside conventional treatments. Probiotics may serve as adjunctive therapy for H. pylori; however, their effectiveness as a monotherapy is limited. Photodynamic and phage therapies exhibit potential in targeting H. pylori infections, including those caused by drug-resistant strains, without the use of antibiotics. The development of a reliable vaccine is also critical for the eradication of H. pylori. This review identifies candidate antigens such as VacA, CagA, and HspA, along with various vaccine formulations, including vector-based and subunit vaccines. Some vaccines have demonstrated efficacy in clinical trials, while others have shown robust immune protection in preclinical studies. Nevertheless, each of the aforementioned alternative therapies requires thorough preclinical and clinical evaluation to ascertain their efficacy, side effects, cost-effectiveness, and patient compliance.

Identifying the unknown: Application of molecular epidemiology tools to identify clustering and HIV transmission routes in Poland.

Understanding the dynamics of HIV-1 transmission is essential for developing effective screening and intervention strategies. Viral genetic sequences provide valuable information that can be used to infer the history and patterns of viral transmission. Our study explores the structure and dynamics of HIV transmissions in Poland from 1999 to 2022 to elucidate key patterns related with national epidemics. To understand the temporal dynamics of transmission routes we examined HIV pol sequence data from 5705 Polish PWH. The HIV-TRAnsmission Cluster Engine (HIV-TRACE) was utilized to identify potential links between different risk groups and putative links to individuals with unreported transmission risk. Our analyses generated 503 clusters, containing 3942 individuals, and identified 13,917 putative links. Approximately 69.1 % of the sequences formed clusters. In the dataset 32.2 % of individuals were reported MSM transmission route, 7.9 % by heterosexual, and 5.6 % by PWID transmissions. The transmission route was unknown for 54.2 % of patients. Putative transmissions from MSM to all other groups revealed that 45.1 % of links lead to people with unregistered transmission mode. For heterosexual patients, 40.2 % of connections were directed to patients lacking information on infection routes and 30.5 % to MSM individuals. Our analysis unveiled that 45.1 % of cases with unreported transmission routes may be identified as MSM, while 3.5 % might be potential non-disclosed MSM. Genetic linkages can provide valuable insights into the transmission dynamics among individuals, even in cases where transmission risk information is missing or unreported. The observed association between MSM and unreported cases highlights the potential of molecular epidemiology to complete missing patient data.

First molecular report of the Chelonid alphaherpesvirus 5 (ChHV5 Scutavirus chelonidalpha5) in a green turtle (Chelonia mydas) with fibropapillomatosis in the southwest Gulf of Mexico

Fibropapillomatosis (FP) is an emerging neoplastic disease associated with chelonid herpesvirus 5 (ChHV5; Scutavirus chelonidalpha 5) that affects all species of marine turtles worldwide, mainly green turtles (Chelonia mydas) at coastal feeding sites. This report describes the case of a juvenile green turtle stranded alive on the coast of Veracruz, Mexico that presented 41 lesions suggestive of FP distributed on the eyes, neck, front flippers, axillary/inguinal regions and plastron. Morphologically, the lesions varied in size, shape and appearance of the surface. A tumour was collected and analysed by histopathology revealing a benign neoplasm with fibropapilloma characteristics (dermal and epidermal proliferation) and cytopathic effects consistent with herpesvirus infection, such as ballooning, reticular, and vacuolar degeneration, cell necrosis, eosinophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies, and inflammatory cell infiltration. The tumour tested positive for ChHV5 through conventional PCR targeting the UL30, UL18, UL22, and UL27 genes. Phylogenetic analysis of the DNA Polymerase (UL30) placed the Veracruz variant in the Western Atlantic/Eastern Caribbean cluster along with sequences from Florida, Colombia, Barbados, and Brazil. Additional identification of the CMA1.1 DNA mitochondrial haplotype for this individual supports the connectivity between green turtles from the northern and southern regions of the Gulf of Mexico (GoM) and the Caribbean. It also suggests a potential risk route for ChHV5 infection. This report details the first case of FP linked to ChHV5 in Veracruz and the southwestern GoM. Further research on FP and ChHV5 in these areas is crucial due to their role as habitats for five sea turtle species across various life stages.