Infected Meat Research Articles

Investigation of an outbreak of cutaneous anthrax in Banlu village, Lianyungang, China, 2012

After notification of a suspected case of anthrax following the slaughtering of a sick cow in Banlu village, an area that has not had any anthrax cases for decades, we aimed to confirm the outbreak, determine the transmission mechanism and implement control measures. The outbreak response team interviewed all people that had contact with the sick cow. Three types of cases' specimens were collected and tested by blood smear, real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and the gold colloid method. Traceback of potentially contaminated meat and cattle were conducted. There were five confirmed and three probable cases verified among 17 people who had contact with the sick cow - an attack rate of 47%. The incubation period ranged from one to eightdays with a median of twodays. All eight cases had lesions. All were native residents of Banlu village aged between 21 and 48 years. Five male cases were professional butchers; two females and one male were temporary assistants. The sick cow's meat and hide, as well as all cattle processed at the same time, were recalled. Hypochlorite was used to disinfect the contaminated environments, butchering facilities and the contacts' personal effects. This outbreak was caused by anthrax bacillus transmitted to contacts from the tissues of the sick cow. Control of the outbreak was managed by recalling all potentially infected meat and disinfecting the slaughter house and the suspected cases' personal effects and environment.

Reappearance of Taenia ovis krabbei muscle cysts in a roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in Denmark after 60+ years

The present report describes the reappearance of Taenia ovis krabbei in a roe deer from Denmark after more than 60 years. The cysticerci were isolated from the thigh muscle of the deer, and the diagnosis was based on histostological analysis, morphology of the rostellar-hooks as well as molecular typing of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase I (cox1) gene. The exact definitive host was not revealed in this report, but domestic dogs may play a role of the definitive host in the area. This finding is of concern to hunters and deer meat producers, since the infected meat is usually condemned due to esthetic reasons.

Plague: History and contemporary analysis

Plague has caused ravaging outbreaks, including the Justinian plague and the "black death" in the Middle Ages. The causative agents of these outbreaks have been confirmed using modern molecular tests. The vector of plague during pandemics remains the subject of controversy. Nowadays, plague must be suspected in all areas where plague is endemic in rodents when patients present with adenitis or with pneumonia with a bloody expectorate. Diagnosis is more difficult in the situation of the reemergence of plague, as in Algeria for example, told by the first physician involved in that outbreak (NM). When in doubt, it is preferable to prescribe treatment with doxycycline while waiting for the test results because of the risk of fatality in individuals with plague. The typical bubo is a type of adenitis that is painful, red and nonfluctuating. The diagnosis is simple when microbiological analysis is conducted. Plague is a likely diagnosis when one sees gram-negative bacilli in lymph node aspirate or biopsy samples. Yersinia pestis grows very easily in blood cultures and is easy to identify by biochemical tests and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. Pneumonic plague and septicemic plague without adenitis are difficult to diagnose, and these diagnoses are often made by chance or retrospectively when cases are not part of an epidemic or related to another specific epidemiologic context. The treatment of plague must be based on gentamicin or doxycycline. Treatment with one of these antibiotics must be started as soon as plague is suspected. Analysis of past plague epidemics by using modern laboratory tools illustrated the value of epidemic buboes for the clinical diagnosis of plague; and brought new concepts regarding its transmission by human ectoparasites.

Toxoplasma gondii antibodies sheep in Lages, Santa Catarina, Brazil, and comparison using IFA and ELISA

Toxoplasmosis in sheep is a disease of great importance in veterinary medicine, which causes economic losses in livestock and has a great impact on human health, since consumption of infected meat facilitates transmission of zoonotic infections. Blood samples from sheep (n = 360) were collected from 13 farm properties in the municipality of Lages, Santa Catarina, to estimate the prevalence of toxoplasmosis and identify risk factors associated with Toxoplasma gondii infection. T. gondii, antibodies were investigated by means of the indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Animals infected with T. gondii were found on 100% of the farms. IFA detected 56.9% (205/360) and ELISA 42.5% of the infected sheep. Breed was the only risk factor associated with the presence of T. gondii antibodies. ELISA showed sensitivity of 61%, specificity of 82% and kappa of 0.41, which was considered moderate. This allows use of ELISA as an alternative technique for diagnosing T. gondii in sheep.

Hematodinium sp. infection in Norway lobster Nephrops norvegicus and its effects on meat quality

Hematodinium and Hematodinium-like species have emerged in the last 3 decades as important parasitic pathogens of crustaceans worldwide, causing a significant economic loss to fisheries and related markets. In some species (notably the Tanner crab Chionoecetes bairdi), the parasite reportedly causes the cooked meat to taste bitter and aspirin-like. The bitter taste, together with the gross pathology of the infection, renders these crabs unmarketable. Surprisingly, no organoleptic tests have ever been conducted to date, and the cause for the bitter taste is still unknown. Nevertheless, it is generally assumed that the bitter taste occurs widely in cooked meats and products derived from crustaceans infected with Hematodinium. In the present study, we analysed the meat quality and organoleptic attributes after capture and during storage of Norway lobsters Nephrops norvegicus from Scottish waters that were either asymptomatic or symptomatic of patent Hematodinium infection. Results from the sensory evaluation of the cooked product indicate that tail meat from symptomatic N. norvegicus is bland in flavour and aftertaste, and more friable or sloppier in texture than meat from asymptomatic animals. As a consequence, infected meat tends to be less palatable, although surprisingly no bitter taste is reported. From an analytical point of view, tail meat from patently infected animals is at an advanced stage of autolysis, while no difference in microbial load is detected. These results suggest that Norway lobsters heavily infected with Hematodinium are of inferior marketing quality even after the tails have been cooked.

Feasibility study for the detection of Trichinella spiralis in a murine model using mid-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (MID-FTIR) with attenuated total reflectance (ATR) and soft independent modelling of class analogies (SIMCA)

Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy with attenuated total reflectance (ATR) and soft independent modelling by class analogies (SIMCA) was used to assess the feasibility of detecting Trichinella spiralis in a murine model. The selected FTIR wavenumber range was 1700–900cm−1 and the first derivative of the spectra was subjected to SIMCA analysis. The SIMCA model developed for rat meat spiked with T. spiralis larvae was successfully apply to classify non-infected from infected rat meat with a limit of detection of 3 larvae/10g rat meat and no false positives with 99% confidence limit. To avoid false positives arising from the presence of other parasites, another chemometric model was developed to demonstrate the capacity of the model to discriminate between Ascaris suum, Taenia solium and T. spiralis. Results confirmed that this method could correctly distinguish these parasites. Additional studies are needed to prove the effectiveness of this technique for other types of muscle meats, including those relevant to human consumption.

Ocular toxoplasmosis I: parasitology, epidemiology and public health

Ocular toxoplasmosis results from retinal infection with the protozoan, Toxoplasma gondii. This parasite, which exists as multiple clonal subpopulations and in three stages, is capable of replication in any nucleated cell of its primary feline or multiple paratenic hosts. Human seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis is high across the globe, but with geographic variation. While prevalence of ocular toxoplasmosis is not well documented, toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis is the commonest form of posterior uveitis in many countries. Correlation of parasite genotype with disease is an important area of new research. Ocular infection with T. gondii often follows ingestion of bradyzoites in undercooked infected meat. Oocysts may survive for an extended period in the environment, and water contaminated with oocysts is an important source in toxoplasmosis epidemics. Ocular toxoplasmosis is preventable by a combination of community activities and personal measures. Public health action is well justified by the considerable burden of congenital and postnatal infections.

Photo Quiz: Tapeworm in Stomach

A fifty-four-year-old woman was admitted to emergency department with a two-week history of dyspepsia, abdominal pain, and nausea. For two months she had experienced intermittent episodes of dyspepsia, nausea and vomiting. Her abdominal pain was described as epigastric, non-radiating, worse after eating, and not relieved by defecation. She never had jaundice, hematemesis, melena, hematochezia, or tenesmus. During general physical examination, her vital signs were stable. No oropharyngeal lesion was observed. The respiratory and cardiovascular examinations were unremarkable. Her abdomen was soft and not tender in epigastrium. No free fluid or organomegaly was appreciated. No peritoneal signs were elicited. Her digital rectal exam was also inconspicuous. Given routine lab tests, the patient was found to be anemic with borderline microcytosis. Her white blood cell and differential count were normal. Her urinalysis did not show any sign of urinary tract infection. Amylase and lipase were within normal limits. Transaminases were normal. An abdominal X-ray was taken and showed no evidence of obstruction or perforation. Stool analysis (e g, stool cultures, ova and parasite examination) was negative. The patient later underwent esophagogastroduodenoscopy, as shown in the image which is taken from her stomach (Figure 1). Humans are the only definitive hosts for Taenia saginata (T. saginata). Eggs or gravid proglottids are passed through human stool. Cattles become infected by ingesting vegetation, contaminated with eggs or gravid proglottids. In animal’s intestine, the oncospheres hatch, invade the intestinal wall, and migrate hematogenously to striated muscles, where they develop in cysticerci. Humans become infected by ingesting raw or undercooked infected meat containing cysticerci. In human intestine, protoscolices are released from the cysts and Figure 1. Tapeworm in Stomach shown in Upper Gastrointestinal Endoscopy

Tolerance to low temperatures of Toxocara cati larvae in chicken muscle tissue

Infectivity of Toxocara cati larvae in muscle tissue of chickens after storage at 4°C and −25°C was assessed in a mouse bioassay to provide information on the risk of meat-borne toxocarosis. Muscle tissue samples of 30-day old T. cati infections were stored at 4°C for 14 and 28 days and at −25°C for 12, 24 and 48h, whereafter, larvae were released by digestion. For each experimental group, the released larvae were inoculated in six mice. After 15 days, mice were euthanized and larval burden was assessed by digestion. In the control group (no storage of the infected chicken meat), 47.9% of the inoculated larvae established in mice, whereas storage of meat at 4°C for 14 days or 28 days reduced the recovery to 24.1% or 3.3%, respectively. Muscle larvae exposed to −25°C for 12, 24 or 48h did not establish in the mice. The observation that larvae retain infective after refrigeration at exposure in 4°C for 28 days, emphasize the zoonotic potential of poultry meat as a causative agent of human toxocarosis.

Pathogenesis and Treatment of Hepatitis E Virus Infection

Hepatitis E has been considered to be a travel-associated, acute, self-limiting liver disease that causes fulminant hepatic failure in specific high-risk groups only. However, hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection can also be acquired in industrialized countries-HEV genotype 3 infection is a zoonosis, with pigs and rodents serving as animal reservoirs. In recent years, cases of chronic HEV infection that were associated with progressive liver disease have been described in several cohorts of immunocompromised individuals, including recipients of organ transplants. The topic of hepatitis E is therefore re-emerging and has raised the following important questions: what is the risk for HEV infection in Western countries (eg, from eating uncooked meat)? How frequently does chronic hepatitis E develop among human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients and recipients of organ transplants? What are the treatment options? What is the current status of vaccine development? What do we know about the pathogenesis of HEV infection, and why does it have a more severe course in pregnant women? This review summarizes the current knowledge on the pathogenesis and treatment of HEV infection.

Trypanorhyncha cestodes of hygienic-sanitary importance infecting flounders Paralichthys patagonicus Jordan, 1889 and Xystreurys rasile (Jordan, 1891) of the Neotropical region, Brazil

From February 2007 to July 2010, 27 specimens of Paralichthys patagonicus, and from September to December 2010, 30 specimens of Xystreurys rasile were purchased from fish markets in the municipalities of Cabo Frio and Rio de Janeiro, State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The fishes were measured, necropsied, filleted, and further had their organs investigated. In P. patagonicus, 19 (70, 3 %) were parasitized with metacestodes of Trypanorhyncha species: Nybelinia erythraea, N. lingualis, Heteronybelinia nipponica, Pterobothrium crassicolle, Grillotia carvajalregorum, and Callitetrahynchus gracilis. In X. rasile, 17 (56, 6 %) were parasitized with metacestodes: N. erythraea, N. lingualis, H. nipponica, and G. carvajalregorum. The parasitological indices of prevalence, intensity, mean intensity, abundance, mean abundance, range of infection, and infection sites of each parasite species are presented. This is the first report of Trypanorhyncha cestodes parasitizing specimens of P. patagonicus and X. rasile. These cestodes were studied due to their importance during fish sanitary inspection, if one considers the harm that the repulsive aspect of infected meat causes to consumers.

Real-time PCR as a surveillance tool for the detection of Trichinella infection in muscle samples from wildlife

Trichinella nematodes are the causative agent of trichinellosis, a meat-borne zoonosis acquired by consuming undercooked, infected meat. Although most human infections are sourced from the domestic environment, the majority of Trichinella parasites circulate in the natural environment in carnivorous and scavenging wildlife. Surveillance using reliable and accurate diagnostic tools to detect Trichinella parasites in wildlife hosts is necessary to evaluate the prevalence and risk of transmission from wildlife to humans. Real-time PCR assays have previously been developed for the detection of European Trichinella species in commercial pork and wild fox muscle samples. We have expanded on the use of real-time PCR in Trichinella detection by developing an improved extraction method and SYBR green assay that detects all known Trichinella species in muscle samples from a greater variety of wildlife. We simulated low-level Trichinella infections in wild pig, fox, saltwater crocodile, wild cat and a native Australian marsupial using Trichinella pseudospiralis or Trichinella papuae ethanol-fixed larvae. Trichinella-specific primers targeted a conserved region of the small subunit of the ribosomal RNA and were tested for specificity against host and other parasite genomic DNAs. The analytical sensitivity of the assay was at least 100fg using pure genomic T. pseudospiralis DNA serially diluted in water. The diagnostic sensitivity of the assay was evaluated by spiking 10g of each host muscle with T. pseudospiralis or T. papuae larvae at representative infections of 1.0, 0.5 and 0.1 larvae per gram, and shown to detect larvae at the lowest infection rate. A field sample evaluation on naturally infected muscle samples of wild pigs and Tasmanian devils showed complete agreement with the EU reference artificial digestion method (k-value=1.00). Positive amplification of mouse tissue experimentally infected with T. spiralis indicated the assay could also be used on encapsulated species in situ. This real-time PCR assay offers an alternative highly specific and sensitive diagnostic method for use in Trichinella wildlife surveillance and could be adapted to wildlife hosts of any region.

Determination of Trichinella spiralis in pig muscles using Mid-Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (MID-FTIR) with Attenuated Total Reflectance (ATR) and Soft Independent Modeling of Class Analogy (SIMCA)

The aim of this work was to study the feasibility of detection of Trichinella spiralis in swine meat using Middle Infrared Spectroscopy Fourier Transform with Attenuated Total Reflectance (ATR) and Soft Independent Modeling of Class Analogy (MID-FTIR-ATR-SIMCA). Five male Pigs were orally infected at different larvae concentrations (13,000, 6500, 3500, 1625, 812 larvae/pig) and after 24weeks the animals were euthanized. Five types of muscles were studied (leg, loin, rib, masseter, and diaphragm). Results showed that MID-FTIR-ATR-SIMCA was useful to determine the presence of T. spiralis in the samples, as the interclass distance between infected and non infected muscles varied from 13.5 to 36.8. This technique was also useful to discriminate among pig muscles, where masseter showed the largest interclass distance, while rib presented the smallest one. In all cases the recognition and rejection rates were 100%, which means that the methodology is capable of accurately separating T. spiralis infected from non infected swine meat.

From science to action and from action to science: the Nunavik Trichinellosis Prevention Program

Objectives. During the 1980s, walrus-meat consumption caused infections with the parasite Trichinella nativa in Nunavik inhabitants. In response to these events, stakeholders set up the community-based Nunavik Trichinellosis Prevention Program (NTPP). The objectives of the present communication are to review the NTPP, describe how science and action were interwoven in its development and identify its assets and limitations.Study design. Descriptive study.Methods. The NTPP relies on a pooled digestion assay of tongue samples taken from each harvested walrus. The public health recommendations depend on the results of the analyses: infected walrus meat should be destroyed; parasite-free meat may be eaten raw or cooked.Results. All communities involved in the walrus hunt participate in the NTPP and a high percentage of harvested walruses are included in the NTPP. Infected animals account for 2.9% of the walruses tested (20/694) since 1992. The NTPP permitted the early management of a trichinellosis event in 1997. Since then, it prevented the new occurrence of outbreaks related to walruses hunted by Nunavimmiut.Conclusions. The absence of recent major outbreaks of trichinellosis in Nunavik may reasonably be attributed to the NTPP. The success of the program stands on many facilitating factors such as the nature of the disease and its source, the existence of an efficient analytic method, the strong involvement of the different partners including direct resource users, as well as the comprehensive bidirectional science-to-action approach that has been followed.

Gastrointestinal Anthrax: A Case and Review of Literature

Anthrax which is caused by Bacillus anthracis is typically a disease of herbivores. Spores existing in the skin, meat, hair or mouth and nose of animals are transmitted to humans through contact with a break in the skin, consumption of infected meat or inhalation of spores [1]. Infected uncooked or insufficiently cooked meats cause oropharyngeal and gastrointestinal system (GIS) anthrax. When this infected materials swallowed anthrax spores may cause lesions from the oral cavity to the caecum. The diagnosis of gastrointestinal system (GIS) anthrax is difficult due to insidious clinical progression of the disease and difficulty in the isolation of agent pathogen. Releated symptoms of GIS anthrax are sore throat, neck swelling, diffuculty swallowing, stomach pain, anoreksia, bloody diarrhea, nause, bloody vomiting and fever. Supportive and antibiotic treatments are required. Benzylpenicillin, rifampicin, clindamycin, chloramphenicol, imipenem/cilastatin, or vancomycin can be use for treatment, ciprofloxacin or doxycycline may be added to this treat- ment for serious cases. To emphasize the necessity of taking precautions, an oropharyngeal and intestinal anthrax case due to consumption of infected and insufficiently cooked meat is presented below.

Presentation of brucellosis in an endemic area; west of IRAQ

Background: brucellosis in enzootic bacterial infection of animals and human through infected animals milk, urine, vaginal secretions, uterine products & uncooked infected meat. leads to clinical human infection with brucellosis. Objectives: this study was introduced to look for endemicity, presentation& rate of infection of brucellosis in Anbar Governorate West of Iraq. Materials & methods: one hundred four (104) patients had clinical features of brucellosis investigated serologically, blood cultures. received antibrucella of triple antibiotics for minimum 6 weeks followed up regularly till they cured, during the period from 30.12.2009 to 30.12.2010. Results: one hundred four (104) cases were diagnosed, fifty four of them (54) were females and fifty (50) were males all of them were adults .Ninety six (96) cases were presented with subacute brucellosis, three (3) cases with knee joint arthritis, (four) 4 cases with sciatic nerve radiculopathy and one case of neurobrucellosis. Conclusion: the study proved that Anbar Governorate is endemic with brucella infection with mild symptoms in most cases and good response with no relapse rate with triple antibrucella antibiotics.

Brucellosis, Taiwan, 2011

To the Editor: Human brucellosis is the most common zoonosis worldwide (1–4). The disease is transmitted to humans through the consumption of infected meat and raw dairy products from domestic livestock or by direct or indirect contact with infected animals (1–3). The disease is multisystemic and shows wide clinical polymorphism (2–4). A 54-year-old woman reported high fever, poor appetite, epigastralgia, mild dysuria, generalized myalgia, and mild left side pain for 6 days before she sought care at and was admitted to National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan. She had a history of ovarian cancer (clear cell, stage Ic), which had been treated with surgery and chemotherapy 7 years earlier at our hospital. She had traveled to many countries, most recently to Algeria and Morocco 2 months before this admission. During her stay in North Africa, she had close contact with camels, ate cheese and yogurt, and drank milk, even in the desert. Fever occurred 1 month after she returned to Taiwan. On physical examination, her body temperature was 39.9°C, blood pressure was 97/68 mm Hg, and pulse rate was 89 beats/min. There was mild tenderness on palpation in the epigastric area. Laboratory analysis of serum specimens showed elevated levels of alanine aminotransferase (534 U/L), aspartate aminotransferase (841 U/L), and alkaline phosphatase (337 U/L) but a total bilirubin level (0.48 mg/dL) within reference limits. Renal function was within reference ranges (blood urea nitrogen 9.5 mg/dL, creatinine 0.6 mg/dL). C-reactive protein was elevated (4.59 mg/dL), but procalcitonin level was within reference range (0.13 ng/mL). The leukocyte count was 4,710 cells/mm3, and hemoglobin was 11.4 g/dL. Serologic tests for viral hepatitis were negative for hepatitis B virus, hepatitis A virus, cytomegalovirus, and Epstein-Barr virus infections. Abdominal ultrasound indicated mild splenomegaly and no evidence of vegetation. Abdominal and pelvic computed tomography showed focal splenic infarction with splenomegaly. Empirical ceftriaxone (1 g every 12 h) and doxycycline (100 mg every 12 h) were administered, and fever subsided 5 days later. Two aerobic culture bottles (BacT/ALERT, bioMerieux Inc., La Balme les Grottes, France) from different sets of blood cultures on the day before admission yielded unidentified gram-negative tiny bacilli after 2 days of incubation. The organism was identified as Brucella melitensis by the Vitek 2 GN identification system (bioMerieux Inc.) (probability of identity 99%) and was confirmed by analysis of partial 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Two primers were used: 8FPL (5′-AGAGTTTGATCCTGGCTCAG-3′) and 1492RPL (5′-GGTTACCTTGTTACGACTT-3′). We compared the partial sequences with published sequences in the GenBank database by using the BLASTN algorithm (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/blast). The closest match was B. melitensis (GenBank accession no. {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:CP001852.1,term_id:326553478,term_text:CP001852.1}}CP001852.1; maximal identity 100%). MICs were determined by the Etest (AB Biodisk, Solna, Sweden) on Mueller-Hinton agar (BBL, Becton Dickinson, Sparks, MD, USA) supplemented with 5% sheep blood and were interpreted 2 days after incubation. The isolate was susceptible to doxycycline (MIC 0.25 μg/mL; susceptible MICs <2 μg/mL) but not susceptible to trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (MIC 1/19 μg/mL; susceptible MICs <0.5 μg/mL) (5,6). MIC values of tigecycline and gentamicin were 0.125 μg/mL and 2.0 μg/mL, respectively. A serum sample for examination of Brucella antibody by Rose Bengal test using B. abortus antigen (VLA Scientific, Winchester, UK) collected 12 days after fever onset was positive. Antimicrobial drug treatment was changed to doxycycline and gentamicin. However, low-grade fever and low back pain developed 2 days after administration of gentamicin. The back pain was attributed to muscle pain and was almost completely relieved by 2-day treatment with a nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug. Whole-body gallium scan and spine magnetic resonance imaging suggested osteomyelitis and epidural abscess over the third and fourth lumbar spines. The patient was treated with doxycycline for 6 weeks. A liver function test 2 weeks after admission showed values within reference limits. Cases of human brucellosis and animal sources of Brucella spp. have been reported from Algeria and Morocco (7–10). The most common laboratory findings in patients with brucellosis are high C-reactive protein levels and anemia (3,4). This patient had high C-reactive protein levels but procalcitonin values within reference limits at admission. Hepatic involvement of brucellosis has been reported to range from 2% to 25% (3). The patient also had acute anicteric hepatitis, and serologic test results were negative for all hepatotropic viruses. The isolate from this patient exhibited high MICs for trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, a finding rarely reported (5,6). The low MIC value of tigecycline suggests the potential role of this agent for the treatment of brucellosis. This report confirms brucellosis in Taiwan. Brucellosis could become an emerging problem in this country, particularly given the frequency of travel between Taiwan and areas where brucellosis is endemic.

Clinical, serological and histopathological signs of toxoplasmosis in broiler chickens (Gallus domesticus) after experimental infection

To identify the features of experimental toxoplasmosis in broiler chickens (Gallus domesticus), a total of 48 birds aged 25 days were randomly assigned to one of four groups of 12 birds each. Tachyzoites of Toxoplasma gondii were injected intraperitoneally at doses of 5 × 105 (group A), 1 × 106 (group B) and 1.5 × 106 (group C), and chickens in group D were treated with an injection of saline only (control). Before and after experimental infection, serum samples from all chickens were tested for antibodies against T. gondii with the Sabin–Feldman reaction. After infection, the clinical signs in all the chickens were recorded daily, and blood smears were prepared to determine parasitemia. Paraffin-embedded tissue sections were used for semi-nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to detect the T. gondii B1 gene. Half of the chickens in each group were killed 25 days and half were killed 35 days after infection. All serum samples from chickens in groups A, B and C contained titers of T. gondii antibodies. However, there were no clinical signs suggesting toxoplasmosis. On day 15, the protozoan was observed in blood smears in groups A, B, and C. Analysis by PCR was negative. Microscopic lesions were observed in the brain, heart, liver, pancreas, kidney, spleen, skeletal muscle, proventriculus and lungs, but not in the eyes. Although chickens in group A were exposed to the lowest dose of T. gondii tachyzoites, lesions in this group were relatively more severe than those observed in groups B and C, which were exposed to higher doses of tachyzoites. Group B showed acute signs of toxoplasmosis with few microscopic lesions, whereas group C showed no lesions. Although no stages of the parasite were found in histopathological sections of skeletal muscle, the potential risks of infected chicken meat for public health cannot be disregarded.

Strayed dogs sentinels ofTrichinella britoviinfection in Kosovo

Strayed dogs sentinels of<i>Trichinella britovi</i>infection in Kosovo

Ebola Virus as a Foodborne Pathogen? Cause for Consideration, but Not Panic

In this issue of the Journal, Kobinger et al [1] report on experimental infection of common domestic pigs with Ebola virus (EBOV). What possessed them to perform this seemingly odd experiment? The answer lies in a closer look at various species of the virus and recent findings from the field. There are 5 species of EBOV with a range of pathogenicity in humans; on one end of the spectrum is Zaire EBOV (ZEBOV), the quintessential ‘‘hot zone’’ EBOV, associated with case fatality ratios up to 90%. On the other end is Reston EBOV (REBOV), which does not appear to be pathogenic to humans. REBOV has always been the outlier among EBOVs, genetically distinct, with .40% nucleotide sequence divergence from ZEBOV for the glycoprotein gene [2, 3], which is thought to play a crucial role in pathogenesis [4]. Although ZEBOV and the other species are endemic in Africa, until 2008 all REBOV infections had been traced to monkeys in or imported from a single breeding facility in the Philippines [5–8]. The site was finally shuttered in 1997, and REBOV disappeared until 2008, when it resurfaced in domestic pigs on 2 Philippine farms within a few hundred miles of the closed monkey breeding facility [9]. The pigs had a respiratory disease but were coinfected with porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus, so it was not possible to definitely attribute their disease to REBOV. It is not known how the pigs became infected, but it is reasonable to suppose that is was from exposure to fruit bats, the likely reservoir for EBOV [10]. The REBOV epizootic in pigs effectively answers some lingering questions, including whether this virus is truly endemic in the Philippines (apparently so), rather than somehow introduced from Africa, and whether REBOV is pathogenic to humans (apparently not, with some caveats discussed below). As is usually the case in science, however, answers bring about new questions. The pig epizootic was the first recorded instance of any EBOV in livestock [11]. What does this finding mean about the safety of our food and the people providing it? The work of Kobinger et al [1] provides some answers, showing that (1) domestic pigs can be infected with ZEBOV via the nasogastric mucosa; (2) infection in pigs causes a respiratory disease that can be severe; (3) virus replicates in cells of the upper airway and is shed in respiratory secretions; (4) sick pigs can transmit the virus to naive animals; and (5) histopathologic findings in the experimentally ZEBOV-infected pigs are very similar to those found in the pigs coinfected with REBOV and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus in the Philippines [9]. What are the ways in which EBOV might pose a threat to us through our food chain? Pigs are unlikely to be an integral part of the natural maintenance of EBOVs, but could they serve as accidental hosts transmitting REBOV or even ZEBOV to humans? Serologic evidence of past REBOV infection in 6 workers on the pig farms in the Philippines [9], all of whom denied any contact with bats or monkeys, strongly suggests this possibility [12]. The parallels are striking with the 1998–1999 outbreak of Nipah virus in Malaysia and Singapore, in which infected pigs developed a respiratory syndrome and transmitted the virus to humans, who developed the now well-described Nipah virus encephalitis [13]. The pigs were presumed to be infected through direct or indirect contact with Pteropus bats, later shown to be the Nipah virus reservoir [13]. What might be the risk from infected meat? ZEBOV transmission to humans has been clearly documented in central Africa through the hunting, butchering, Received 9 November 2010; accepted 9 November 2010. Potential conflicts of interest: none reported. Correspondence: Daniel G. Bausch, MD, MPH&TM, Department of Tropical Medicine, SL-17, 1430 Tulane Ave, New Orleans, LA 70112-2699 (dbausch@tulane.edu). The Journal of Infectious Diseases The Author 2011. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please e-mail: journals. permissions@oup.com 0022-1899 (print)/1537-6613 (online)/2011/00-0001$14.00 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jir201