Inert Dust Research Articles

Evaluation of three organophosphorus insecticides alone and in combination with inert dusts for the control of Trogoderma granarium Everts (Coleoptera: Dermestidae)

Management of Trogoderma granarium with insecticides alone is difficult due to its high tolerance to commonly used insecticides. In the present study, three organophosphorus insecticides (OPs), chlorpyrifos-methyl (CH), pirimiphos-methyl (PI) and malathion (MA) were evaluated alone or in binary blends with diatomaceous earth (DE), kaolin (KA) and zeolite (ZE) against T. granarium on stored wheat. The following concentrations were used: CH (2.5 and 5 ppm), PI (5 and 10 ppm), MA (4 and 8 ppm) and inert dusts (IDs) (500 and 1000 ppm). The number of dead larvae was counted 1, 2 and 3 weeks after exposure. Progeny (F1 and F2) was recorded 30 and 80 days after exposure, respectively. The wheat grain damage was measured at the end of experiments (80 days). The results revealed that the mortality of khapra beetle larvae was higher in all binary mixture treatments of OPs and IDs than individual ones. The mixtures of CH with IDs caused complete larval mortality at application rate (5 ppm). The binary mixtures of PI or MA with IDs induced strong mortality of T. granarium larvae (>82%). Furthermore, the results indicate that the combination of CH and inert dusts or PI with ZE at the highest rate completely suppressed F1 and F2 progeny after 80 days of treatment. The lowest number of F1 and F2 progeny was recorded in wheat treated with MA (8.0 ppm) + DE (1000 ppm) with 1.0 and 1.6 adults/50g, respectively. The mixtures of OPs and IDs at the highest tested rate protected wheat grains against damage caused by insect for 80 days. The findings of the present study indicate that the binary mixtures of OPs, especially CH and IDs are highly effective for the control of khapra beetle and could be implemented in the management of this destructive invasive insect.

Evaluation of Inert Dusts on Surface Applications and Factors That Maximize Their Insecticidal Efficacy

We evaluated formulations of diatomaceous earth and zeolite originated from natural deposits from Greece as insecticides in concrete and steel surfaces for the control of three major beetle species of stored products: Sitophilus oryzae (L.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) (Coleoptera: Bostrychidae) and Tribolium confusum Jacquelin du Val (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). The formulations were tested as dusts at 0.5 or 1 g/m2. Our results indicated that, in most of the cases tested, the inert materials caused 100% adult mortality for all three species, even at the lowest dose, after 7 days of exposure. At the same time, there were no considerable differences in the insecticidal effect of the formulations between concrete and steel surfaces. Among the species tested, R. dominica was the most susceptible, followed by S. oryzae and T. confusum. Our results indicate that natural resource-based inert silicaceous deposits could be used with success in stored product protection against insects at dose rates that are comparable with other commercially available inert material-based formulations.

Field study of the efficacy of an iranian inert dust insecticide on silo-stored wheat

Field study of the efficacy of an iranian inert dust insecticide on silo-stored wheat

Inerting effect of CaCO3 powder on flame spread of wood dust layer

The effect of CaCO3 powder, a typical inert dust, on the flame spread characteristics of wood dust layers was studied using an experimental device to understand the ignition characteristics of and develop inert explosion-proof technology for deposited wood dust. The results showed that the flame spread velocity (FSV) of the mixed dust layer was affected by the dispersion effect of CaCO3 powder and physical heat absorption. As the CaCO3 powder mass fraction increased, the FSV of the dust layer first increased and then decreased, reaching a peak at a 50% mass fraction. Moreover, the front-end temperature of the flame gradually decreased, and the red spark faded. The combustion reaction of the mixed dust layer could be more completed, and the colour of the combustion residue changed from charcoal black to charcoal grey. The coupling effect of the initial temperature and wind speed can promote an increase in the FSV in the mixed dust layer. The Gauss–Amp model of the FSV of the wood dust layer and mass fraction of CaCO3 powder showed that the peak of the FSV occurred when the mass fraction of CaCO3 powder was between 40 and 50%. Thus, a good inerting and explosion-proof effect can be achieved by using CaCO3 powder with a mass fraction of more than 50%; it can improve the whole inerting process. Inert explosion-proof technology should be considered when assessing fire and explosion risk of dust in real process industry situations.

Four Elegies

Four Elegies

Two are better than one: the combinations of Beauveria bassiana, diatomaceous earth, and indoxacarb as effective wheat protectants

The current study evaluates the efficacy of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo-Crivelli) Vuillemin (Hypocreales: Cordycipitaceae), diatomaceous earth (DE) (Protect-It), and the oxadiazine indoxacarb, at single or combined applications on wheat kernels, for the management of the rusty grain beetle, Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens) (Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae), the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), the khapra beetle, Trogoderma granarium Everts (Coleoptera: Dermestidae), and the lesser grain borer, Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) (Coleoptera: Bostrychidae). The study was conducted between November 2020 and August 2021 in Faisalabad under a complete randomized block design. The combination of DE + indoxacarb was the most efficient as it caused higher overall mortalities ranging between 59.34 and 100%, and lower overall progeny production ranging between 8.35 and 33.70 individuals per vial, than all other treatments. Beauveria bassiana alone exhibited the lowest mortality rates ranging between 22.33 and 47.76%, and the highest offspring emergence, ranging between 51.33 and 78.55 individuals per vial. Similar pattern was observed when persistence bioassays were conducted. For a period of 120 days, the DE + indoxacarb was the most powerful combination against all tested species, providing overall mortality rates between 17.06 and 63.80%. The overall progeny production was lower for the insect individuals exposed on wheat treated with the DE + indoxacarb combination, ranging between 13.66 and 52.23 individuals per vial, and higher for those exposed to B. bassiana alone, ranging between 44.03 and 107.67 individuals per vial, for the entire duration of storage. However, the efficacy of all treatments decreased gradually during the course of storage. The findings of the current study indicate that the combinations of entomopathogenic fungi, DE, and indoxacarb can be used for the prolonged protection of stored wheat from the tested noxious insect species of stored products. Further research, which will include other inert dusts in combination with entomopathogenic fungi and indoxacarb, may provide additional knowledge towards an effective management of noxious species occurring in storages.

Experimental study on inert products, moisture, and particle size effect on the minimum ignition energy of combustible dusts

Handling combustible dusts not only continues to pose a risk to industry but can also affect the safety of society. Explosion risk could be avoided or mitigated trying to guarantee inherent safety throughout the product life chain. One way to reduce the risks when dealing with combustible dust is to increase the Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE) in order to decrease combustible dust ignition sensitivity. To achieve this decrease, the inertization technique, also known as moderation, will be used. It consists of adding inert powders or humidity to the combustible dust. As sometimes end-users also must deal with the handling of flammable dusts, this study aims to find the most optimal inert for toner waste from printers and Holi powder (organic coloured dust from Indian parties), taking Lycopodium as a reference. Calcium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate and gypsum are proposed as inert materials. In addition, with the aim of giving a second use to biomass boiler waste or boiler slagging, this waste will be analyzed as inert, as well as how humidity affects the combustible dusts. Then, sodium bicarbonate will be tested at different granulometries to evaluate the effect of particle size on moderation process. The tests were carried out in the modified Hartmann apparatus or MIKE 3.0. Mechanisms such as decomposition of inert dust have been analyzed by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)). The results show that gypsum and moisture are the best performing inert followed by calcium carbonate. Boiler slagging and solid bicarbonate contribute to a decrease in the MIE in some of the tests. The reasons for this deviation are discussed in the presented article. When sodium bicarbonate is analyzed at different particle sizes, it is found that the optimum particle size does not match the particle size of the combustible dust. According to the tests, there is an optimum point for which the inert powder provides better results.

Suppression effect of CaCo3, NaCl, and NH4H2PO4 on gas-fat coal dust explosion pressure and flame characteristics

Coal dust explosion is a major accident affecting the safety of coal mine production. In order to control coal dust explosion, using inert dust to suppress explosion is one of the effective methods. Taking the gas-fat coal as the research object and CaCO3, NaCl, and NH4H2PO4 as the inert dust, the suppression effect of inert dust on gas-fat coal dust explosion pressure and flame is studied. It is found that when the gas-fat coal dust particle size is 48~58 ?m, both the maximum pressure and the farthest distance of flame reach the maximum value. Among the three inert dusts, NH4H2PO4 has the best suppression effect, followed by NaCl, and CaCO3 has the worst suppression effect on explosion. The smaller the particle size of

Experimental Research on Effect of Different Inert Powders on the Minimum Ignition Energy and Suppression Effect of Sucrose Dust

In order to prevent sucrose dust explosion, the suppression effect of four inert dusts (such as NH₄H₂PO₄, Al (OH)₃, NaCl and NaHCO₃) on the minimum ignition energy (MIE) of sucrose dust was studied by 1.2L Hartmann apparatus. The experimental results shown that the fire sensitivity of sucrose dust can be reduced by adding inert powders, and the MIE of sucrose dust significantly could be increased. The higher the mass fraction of inert powders and smaller particle size, the better the suppression effect. The best suppression effect on the sucrose dust flame propagation was NaHCO₃. The mass fraction of NaHCO₃, Al(OH)₃, NH₄H₂PO₄, NaCl (38-47μm) reaching 20%, 60%, 35% and 40% respectively, the sucrose dust were completely inerted. The mass fraction of four inert powders which particle size was 25-37μm were reached 20%, 60%, 30% and 35% respectively, the sucrose dust were completely inerted. Therefore, the suppression effect of four inert powders on sucrose cloud of dust combustion flame was: NaHCO₃ > NH₄H₂PO₄> NaCl > Al (OH)₃.

Toxicity of Some Inert Dusts and Ash Against Rice Weevil, Sitophilus oryzae L. Under Laboratory Conditions

Esber, R. 2023. Toxicity of Some Inert Dusts and Ash Against Rice Weevil, Sitophilus oryzae L. Under Laboratory Conditions. Arab Journal of Plant Protection, 41(4): 398-405. https://doi.org/10.22268/AJPP-41.4.398405 A study was carried out to assess the toxicity of kaolin, silica and apple ash against adults of rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae L. (Curculionidae: Coleoptera) using three concentrations: 2, 4 and 8 g inert material/100 g of wheat grains. Insect mortality was assessed 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8 and 10 days after treatment, and corrected mortality rate was calculated, as well as the LC50 and LC90, and the LT50 and LT90 values. The results obtained showed an increase in the mean of corrected mortality rate with increasing concentration and treatment time, whereas mortality rates reached at the concentration of 8g/100g grains after 10 days of treatment with kaolin, silica and apple ash 93, 48.15 and 100%, respectively, with significant superiority of apple ash over each of kaolin and silica. The LC50 and LC90 values 10 days after treatment were as follows: 1.68 and 6.26 g/100 g for kaolin, 8.69 and 24.55 g/100 g for silica, and 0.95 and 2.92 g/100 g for apple ash, respectively. Whereas, the values of LT50 and LT90 for kaolin were 2.72 and 4.89 days, 6.09 and 10.68 days for silica, and 2.81 and 4.17 days for apple ash, respectively, at 8g/100g seeds. The results obtained showed that kaolin had the highest toxicity three days after treatment, and the values were close to that of apple ash at 4 and 6 days after treatment, with significant difference with silica dusts, whereas apple ash achieved the highest toxicity with a significant difference compared with both kaolin and silica dusts, 10 days after treatment. Keywords: Toxicity, powder, inert dusts, ash, kaolin, silica, apple ash, rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae

Effectiveness of binary combinations of abamectin and deltamethrin with two inert dusts for the management of Trogoderma granarium Everts on wheat grains

The insecticidal efficacy of two insecticides, abamectin (AB) and deltamethrin (DL), alone or in combination with two inert dusts, diatomaceous earth (DE) and kaolin (KA), was assessed against larvae of Trogoderma granarium Everts (Coleoptera: Dermestidae) on wheat grains. The two insecticides (AB and DL) were evaluated at rates of 0.25, 0.5 and 1.0 mg/kg and two inert dusts (DE and KA) were tested at rates of 100, 500 and 1000 mg/kg. The larval mortality was recorded after 7, 14 and 21 days of treatment. The emerged adults (F1) from treated larvae were counted after 30 days of treatment, while F2 and grain weight loss were observed after 80 days of treatment. The binary combinations of two insecticides and two inert dusts showed higher insecticidal activity than individual treatments. The complete larval mortality of T. granarium was achieved in treatment with a mixture of KA (1000 mg/kg) and AB (1.0 mg/kg). While the highest larval mortality of T. granarium in the treatments with binary combinations of DL with DE or KA was 70%. Furthermore, the binary combinations of DE and KA with AB and DL at the highest application rate caused complete inhibition of F1 progeny. Similarly, significant inhibition of F2 progeny was observed after 80 days of treatment with these binary mixtures compared with control treatment. Moreover, full protection of wheat grains was attained in the combinations of two insecticides (AB and DL) at 1.0 mg/kg and two inert dusts (DE and KA) at1000 mg/kg. The findings of the present study indicate that the combinations of AB with DE or KA have high efficacy against T. granarium, and could be used for the control of this invasive insect species in stored wheat.

A comprehensive review on advances in storage pest management: Current scenario and future prospects

Modernization of the agricultural production system led to a significant increase in annual food production intended to meet the ever-growing consumer demand. In many countries, most of the food grains produced is stored for contingency and regular supply. These stored grains, in general, are directly or indirectly infested by insects, resulting in severe grain damages and storage losses, thus, causing a threat to food safety and security. Although a variety of insect management options, such as physical, mechanical, biological, and chemical methods, are available, fumigation has been practiced for decades in storage. However, opportunities for fumigation are narrowing after the phase-out of methyl bromide. Besides, safe food and health concerns paved the path for green chemistry and non-chemical management practices. This review includes the list of stored-grain insects and their detection methods. The different management strategies such as the modern storage structures (hermetic and low-pressure storages), modified or controlled storage atmosphere, application of ozone as fumigant, irradiation, and physical options are presented. Further, the details on sustainable biological options, such as semiochemicals, natural enemies, biopesticides, and entomopathogenic nematodes, are supplemented. The use of inert dusts as grain protectant and in combination with the biological entity is included. Studies on alternative fumigants', novel management options, such as molecular biology tools (RNAi and CRISPR) and nanotechnology in stored grain protection, are also highlighted. This review helps the reader to understand the overall factors affecting grain storage and the different options to manage the insects causing storage losses.

Influencing factors of coking coal dust explosion pressure and flame and effect of inert dust on its explosion suppression

Coking coal is a precious resource in the world and an important raw material for the production of steel, but it is easy to cause explosion accidents in the process of coking coal mining, which is very detrimental to safe production. In order to reveal the influencing factors of coking coal dust explosion intensity and the suppression effect of inert dust on coking coal dust explosion, an experimental study was carried out in this paper. The results show that the particle size and the mass concentration of coal dust have a great influence on the explosion pressure and flame. By analyzing the suppression effects of NaCl, KCl, and NH4H2PO4 on coking coal dust explosion, it is got that NH4H2PO4 has the best explosion suppression effect. When the mass percentage of NH4H2PO4 mixed into coking coal dust increases to 60%, the maximum explosion pressure decreases by 0.47 MPa, and the maximum flame length decreases by 0.50 m. As the particle size of NH4H2PO4 decreases, the explosion intensity continue to decrease. When the particle size of NH4H2PO4 is 0 ~ 25 μm, and the mass percentage of NH4H2PO4 mixed into coking coal dust is 50%, the explosion doesn’t occur anymore.

Experimental Research on the Suppression Effect of Different Types of Inert Dust on Micron-Sized Lignite Dust Explosion Pressure in a Confined Space.

Coal is an important strategic resource in the world; coal production safety has always been widely concerned. In coal mine production, inert dust can effectively reduce coal dust explosion accidents in mine tunnels. To reveal the suppression effect of inert dust on lignite dust explosion, CaCO3, SiO2, and NH4H2PO4 are selected for suppression experiments. It is found that the lignite dust explosion pressure decreases continuously as the mass percentages of inert dust mixed into lignite dust increase. By calculating the molar mass, the suppression effects of CaCO3 and SiO2 on lignite dust explosion are compared. The lignite dust no longer explodes when the mass percentage of NH4H2PO4 dust mixed into lignite dust is 70%, indicating that NH4H2PO4 is more effective than that of CaCO3 and SiO2. The smaller the particle size of NH4H2PO4, the better the suppression effect on explosion. The lignite dust does not explode when the mass percentage of NH4H2PO4 is 60% and the particle size of NH4H2PO4 is 25–38 μm, which proves that decreasing the particle size of NH4H2PO4 is important to suppress explosion. The research results are of great significance for grasping the explosion suppression effect of inert dust on lignite dust.

Inerting Waste Al Alloy Dust with Natural High Polymers: Sustainability of Industrial Waste.

A large amount of waste dust will be produced in the process of metal grinding, resulting in a waste of resources and environmental pollution. Therefore, we present a new method of inerting waste aluminum (Al) alloy dust for recycling purposes. Three natural high polymers—starch, pectin, and hydroxypropyl cellulose—were selected to inert waste metal dust in order to prevent the alloy from hydrolyzing and keep the dust pure enough for reuse. The particles of the Al base alloy before and after dust reaction were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Fourier transform infra-red (FTIR), and the relevant reaction mechanism was clarified. The hydrogen evolution test indicated that, across the temperature interval of 313–333 K, 0.75 wt% pectin inerted hydrogen evolution most efficiently (90.125%). XRD analysis indicated that the inerted product is composed of Al monomer and Al3Mg2, with no detectable content of Al hydroxide. The purity of the Al alloy dust was preserved. SEM and FTIR analyses indicated that the -OH, -COOH, and -COOCH3 functional groups in the high polymer participated in the coordination reaction by adsorbing on the surface of the waste Al alloy particles to produce a protective film, which conforms to Langmuir’s adsorption model. Verification of the inerted Al alloy dust in industrial production confirmed the possibility of reusing waste Al alloy dust. This study provides a simple and effective method for recycling waste Al alloy dust.

A numerical model for the calculation of the minimum ignition energy of pure and mixture dust clouds

A numerical model is developed for the minimum ignition energy (MIE) calculation of pure and mixture dust clouds, considering the influence of particle size distribution. The original particle number based size distribution is approximated with median sizes (number d50) of the subdivisions obtained by dividing the original distribution range. The MIE is calculated for 5 pure dusts, 2 mixtures of combustible dusts and 2 mixtures of combustible & inert dusts. For pure dust clouds, as the number of subdivisions and hence d50s increases, variation trend of the MIE as a function of dust concentration (MIE(conc)) gradually shifts from a “V” to a “U” or “bathtub” shape, along with an increase in the concentration where the dust cloud MIE (minimum MIE(conc) value) is reached. Furthermore, the calculated MIE fluctuates at lower number of d50s but gradually stabilizes as the d50 number further increases. The calculated MIE variation trends correspond well with the experimental data. However, due to uncertainties in the dust cloud formation and spark release in the experimental tests, differences in the definitions of the d50 in different studies and high idealization of the numerical model, there are deviations between the absolute experimental and calculated MIE values.

Opposite effects of typical solid inertants on flame propagation in Mg dust clouds versus dust layers

Adding solid inertants to combustible dust is an effective means of reducing dust explosion risk through both preventive and mitigative measures. However, since dust layers and dust clouds differ in their flame spread mechanisms, they may also differ in their response to solid inertants. In this paper, inerting efficacy of four commonly used solid inertants in Mg dust layers and dust clouds was investigated. As concentration increased, all four inertants effectively suppressed burning in Mg dust clouds. However, CaCO3, NaHCO3, and SiO2 greatly increased the fire hazard in Mg dust layers. CO2 produced by thermal decomposition of CaCO3 destroyed the MgO layer formed on the surface of Mg dust layers and caused more burning of Mg vapor in the gas phase. The water vapor produced by NaHCO3 reacted with Mg to generate hydrogen which intensified combustion. SiO2 emitted heat through a substitution reaction with Mg powder to thrust the mixed dust layer upwards, causing violent combustion similar to that in dust clouds. As inertant proportion increased, the fire hazard in dust layers was initially enhanced but was later decreased, although the fire hazard at 70% inertant remained much higher than that with pure Mg dust. Only NaCl, which is chemically stable and does not react with metal dust, can effectively inert both Mg dust layers and dust clouds. Research on the use of solid inertant technology to prevent or mitigate dust explosions should therefore consider the impact on both dust clouds and dust layers.

Moisture content and application rates of inert dust: effects on dust and wheat physical properties

Grain protectants such as inert dust help prevent quality deterioration during post-harvest storage. Understanding the physical characteristics of inert dust and inert dust treated wheat kernels could help develop solutions to flow problems of stored grain. This research investigated the effects of the moisture content of a synthetic amorphous zeolite and the rates of application on some physical properties of the amorphous zeolite and wheat kernels. Three levels of moisture (2.0%, 6.0%, and 10.0%) of the zeolite were applied at three rates (0.5 g/kg, 1.0 g/kg, and 2.0 g/kg) on 100 g wheat samples (10% m.c, wet basis) in triplicates. Image analysis, laser diffraction, Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), gas pycnometry, and the Single-Kernel Characterization System (SKCS) were used to characterize the physical properties. The particle size of the amorphous dust increased with increasing moisture content. Conversely, shape parameters (circularity, aspect ratio, convexity, and solidity) generally decreased with increasing dust moisture contents. When wheat was mixed with the amorphous dust at increasing rates and moisture levels, the bulk density of wheat decreased, while the tapped density and the angle of repose increased, resulting in higher Hausner ratios and Carr Index values. Treating wheat with the amorphous dust at the highest moisture (35%) and application rate (2.0 g/kg) caused the treated wheat to transition from an acceptable flowability to a poor flowability along with a decrease in wheat kernel hardness. Our data suggest, however, that a range of moisture content (2-6%) and an application rate (0.5 g/kg) mitigate the adverse effects on wheat flowability. This study also highlights the importance of drying any amorphous dust or allowing dust to equilibrate to the experiment temperature before conducting tests on physical properties.

Insecticidal Effects of Neem Leaf Extract, Inert Dust, and Entomopathogenic Fungi on Control of Khapra Beetle (Trogoderma granarium); A Stored Grain Pest

Infestation by different insect pests of stored cereals and the storage of their products is a serious problem. Khapra beetle (Trogoderma granarium) is one of the most common, devastating insect pests of stored grains. It causes both nutritional and economical losses to stored cereals. Six different concentrations of three protectants (neem leaf extract, inert dust, and entomopathogenic fungus) were used for the bioassay in the present study. For neem leaf extract dose rates were 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25% 30% and leaves were collected from University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan. For DE formulation (Conern®) doses rates were 200ppm, 400ppm, 600ppm, 800ppm, 1000ppm 1200 ppm/kg and 1g, 2g, 3g, 4g, 5g 6g/ kg of wheat grains doses of Beauveria bassiana (Racer Bb) (1 g of Racer containing 108 conidia) imported from Agri Life, Medak District. Hyderabad, India was used. 30 larvae were used in each bioassay. Different doses of insecticides showed remarkable toxicity and significantly higher mortality rates in Khapra beetle. The toxic effect was found to be dependent on dose and duration. Summarizing, these insecticides could have likely practical utilizations in the protection of stored grain products against the attack by Trogoderma granarium.

Integrative Alternative Tactics for Ixodid Control.

Simple SummaryHard ticks are important for economic and health reasons, and control has mainly relied upon use of synthetic acaricides. Contemporary development of resistance and concerns relating to health and environmental safety have elicited exploration into alternative tactics for hard tick management. Some examples of alternative tactics involve biological control, desiccant dusts, growth regulators, vaccines, cultural methods, and ingested medications.Ixodids (hard ticks), ectoparasitic arthropods that vector the causal agents of many serious diseases of humans, domestic animals, and wildlife, have become increasingly difficult to control because of the development of resistance against commonly applied synthetic chemical-based acaricides. Resistance has prompted searches for alternative, nonconventional control tactics that can be used as part of integrated ixodid management strategies and for mitigating resistance to conventional acaricides. The quest for alternative control tactics has involved research on various techniques, each influenced by many factors, that have achieved different degrees of success. Alternative approaches include cultural practices, ingested and injected medications, biological control, animal- and plant-based substances, growth regulators, and inert desiccant dusts. Research on biological control of ixodids has mainly focused on predators, parasitoid wasps, infective nematodes, and pathogenic bacteria and fungi. Studies on animal-based substances have been relatively limited, but research on botanicals has been extensive, including whole plant, extract, and essential oil effects on ixodid mortality, behavior, and reproduction. The inert dusts kaolin, silica gel, perlite, and diatomaceous earth are lethal to ixodids, and they are impervious to environmental degradation, unlike chemical-based toxins, remaining effective until physically removed.