Inequalities In Total Mortality Research Articles

Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the inequalities in total mortality by country of birth

to evaluate the impact on total mortality of the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy, by country of birth. historic cohort study based on administrative databases. the study is based on subjects included in the Base Register of Individuals of the Italian National Institute of Statistics on 01.01.2019, aged 35-64 years, and followed-up until 31.07.2021. age-standardized mortality rates were computed to analyse trends in overall mortality by country of birth grouped in three categories: 1. Italy and other high developed countries; 2. European countries with strong migratory pressure (EU-SMP); 3, non-European countries with strong migratory pressure (non-EU-SMP). Variations in mortality rates during the pandemic (March 2020-July 2021) with respect to the pre-pandemic period (January 2019-February 2020) were measured and compared across groups using mortality rate ratios (MRR) estimated by Poisson regression models, separately for men and women. the cohort includes 26,199,241 individuals, of whom 172,847 died during the follow-up. Over the whole period, mortality was consistently lower in individuals born in non-EU-SMP countries as compared to those born in Italy and other high developed countries. During the first pandemic wave (March-April 2020), individuals born in non-EU-SMP countries had higher excesses as compared to those born in Italy or other high developed countries (MRRs: 1.42 vs 1.28 in men and 1.30 vs 1.11 in women). Similar results were observed during the pandemic period October 2020-April 2021, when the MRRs were 1.37 vs 1.20 in men and 1.30 vs 1.11 in women. In the same period, the excess mortality among individuals born in EU-SMP did not significantly differ from that observed among those born in Italy and other high developed countries. in Italy, excess mortality during the COVID-19 pandemic was higher among immigrants born in non-EU-SMP countries as compared to the native population and immigrants born in high developed countries.

Are we really all in this together? The social patterning of mortality during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Belgium

BackgroundBelgium was one of the countries that was struck hard by COVID-19. Initially, the belief was that we were ‘all in it together’. Emerging evidence showed however that deprived socioeconomic groups suffered disproportionally. Yet, few studies are available for Belgium. The main question addressed in this paper is whether excess mortality during the first COVID-19 wave followed a social gradient and whether the classic mortality gradient was reproduced.MethodsWe used nationwide individually linked data from the Belgian National Register and the Census 2011. Age-standardized all-cause mortality rates were calculated during the first COVID-19 wave in weeks 11-20 in 2020 and compared with the rates during weeks 11-20 in 2015-2019 to calculate absolute and relative excess mortality by socioeconomic and -demographic characteristics. For both periods, relative inequalities in total mortality between socioeconomic and -demographic groups were calculated using Poisson regression. Analyses were stratified by age, gender and care home residence.ResultsExcess mortality during the first COVID-19 wave was high in collective households, with care homes hit extremely hard by the pandemic. The social patterning of excess mortality was rather inconsistent and deviated from the usual gradient, mainly through higher mortality excesses among higher socioeconomic groups classes in specific age-sex groups. Overall, the first COVID-19 wave did not change the social patterning of mortality, however. Differences in relative inequalities between both periods were generally small and insignificant, except by household living arrangement.ConclusionThe social patterning during the first COVID-19 wave was exceptional as excess mortality did not follow the classic lines of higher mortality in lower classes and patterns were not always consistent. Relative mortality inequalities did not change substantially during the first COVID-19 wave compared to the reference period.

Smoking and inequalities in mortality in 11 European countries: a birth cohort analysis

PurposeTo study the trends of smoking-attributable mortality among the low and high educated in consecutive birth cohorts in 11 European countries.MethodsRegister-based mortality data were collected among adults aged 30 to 79 years in 11 European countries between 1971 and 2012. Smoking-attributable deaths were estimated indirectly from lung cancer mortality rates using the Preston-Glei-Wilmoth method. Rate ratios and rate differences among the low and high-educated were estimated and used to estimate the contribution of inequality in smoking-attributable mortality to inequality in total mortality.ResultsIn most countries, smoking-attributable mortality decreased in consecutive birth cohorts born between 1906 and 1961 among low- and high-educated men and high-educated women, but not among low-educated women among whom it increased. Relative educational inequalities in smoking-attributable mortality increased among both men and women with no signs of turning points. Absolute inequalities were stable among men but slightly increased among women. The contribution of inequality in smoking-attributable mortality to inequality in total mortality decreased in consecutive generations among men but increased among women.ConclusionsSmoking might become less important as a driver of inequalities in total mortality among men in the future. However, among women, smoking threatens to further widen inequalities in total mortality.

Effect of the Financial Crisis on Socioeconomic Inequalities in Mortality in Small Areas in Seven Spanish Cities.

Background: The aim of this study was to analyze the trend in socioeconomic inequalities in mortality in small areas due to several specific causes before (2001–2004, 2005–2008) and during (2009–2012) the economic crisis in seven Spanish cities. Methods: This ecological study of trends, with census tracts as the areas of analysis, was based on three periods. Several causes of death were studied. A socioeconomic deprivation index was calculated for each census tract. For each small area, we estimated standardized mortality ratios, and controlled for their variability using Bayesian models (sSMR). We also estimated the relative risk of mortality according to deprivation in the different cities, periods, and sexes. Results: In general, a similar geographical pattern was found for the socioeconomic deprivation index and sSMR. For men, there was an association in all cities between the deprivation index and all-cause mortality that remained stable over the three periods. For women, there was an association in Barcelona, Granada, and Sevilla between the deprivation index and all-cause mortality in the third period. Patterns by causes of death were more heterogeneous. Conclusions: After the start of the financial crisis, socioeconomic inequalities in total mortality in small areas of Spanish cities remained stable in most cities, although several causes of death showed a different pattern.

Contribution of smoking to socioeconomic inequalities in mortality: a study of 14 European countries, 1990–2004

BackgroundSmoking contributes to socioeconomic inequalities in mortality, but the extent to which this contribution has changed over time and driven widening or narrowing inequalities in total mortality remains unknown. We...

Inequalities in Alcohol-Related Mortality in 17 European Countries: A Retrospective Analysis of Mortality Registers.

BackgroundSocioeconomic inequalities in alcohol-related mortality have been documented in several European countries, but it is unknown whether the magnitude of these inequalities differs between countries and whether these inequalities increase or decrease over time.Methods and FindingsWe collected and harmonized data on mortality from four alcohol-related causes (alcoholic psychosis, dependence, and abuse; alcoholic cardiomyopathy; alcoholic liver cirrhosis; and accidental poisoning by alcohol) by age, sex, education level, and occupational class in 20 European populations from 17 different countries, both for a recent period and for previous points in time, using data from mortality registers. Mortality was age-standardized using the European Standard Population, and measures for both relative and absolute inequality between low and high socioeconomic groups (as measured by educational level and occupational class) were calculated.Rates of alcohol-related mortality are higher in lower educational and occupational groups in all countries. Both relative and absolute inequalities are largest in Eastern Europe, and Finland and Denmark also have very large absolute inequalities in alcohol-related mortality. For example, for educational inequality among Finnish men, the relative index of inequality is 3.6 (95% CI 3.3–4.0) and the slope index of inequality is 112.5 (95% CI 106.2–118.8) deaths per 100,000 person-years. Over time, the relative inequality in alcohol-related mortality has increased in many countries, but the main change is a strong rise of absolute inequality in several countries in Eastern Europe (Hungary, Lithuania, Estonia) and Northern Europe (Finland, Denmark) because of a rapid rise in alcohol-related mortality in lower socioeconomic groups. In some of these countries, alcohol-related causes now account for 10% or more of the socioeconomic inequality in total mortality.Because our study relies on routinely collected underlying causes of death, it is likely that our results underestimate the true extent of the problem.ConclusionsAlcohol-related conditions play an important role in generating inequalities in total mortality in many European countries. Countering increases in alcohol-related mortality in lower socioeconomic groups is essential for reducing inequalities in mortality. Studies of why such increases have not occurred in countries like France, Switzerland, Spain, and Italy can help in developing evidence-based policies in other European countries.

Trends in educational inequalities in cause specific mortality in Norway from 1960 to 2010: a turning point for educational inequalities in cause specific mortality of Norwegian men after the millennium?

BackgroundEducational inequalities in total mortality in Norway have widened during 1960–2000. We wanted to investigate if inequalities have continued to increase in the post millennium decade, and which causes of deaths were the main drivers.MethodsAll deaths (total and cause specific) in the adult Norwegian population aged 45–74 years over five decades, until 2010 were included; in all 708,449 deaths and over 62 million person years. Two indices of inequalities were used to measure inequality and changes in inequalities over time, on the relative scale (Relative Index of Inequality, RII) and on the absolute scale (Slope Index of Inequality, SII).ResultsRelative inequalities in total mortality increased over the five decades in both genders. Among men absolute inequalities stabilized during 2000–2010, after steady, significant increases each decade back to the 1960s, while in women, absolute inequalities continued to increase significantly during the last decade. The stabilization in absolute inequalities among men in the last decade was mostly due to a fall in inequalities in cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality and lung cancer and respiratory disease mortality. Still, in this last decade, the absolute inequalities in cause-specific mortality among men were mostly due to cardiovascular diseases (CVD) (34% of total mortality inequality), lung cancer and respiratory diseases (21%). Among women the absolute inequalities in mortality were mostly due to lung cancer and chronic lower respiratory tract diseases (30%) and CVD (27%).ConclusionsIn men, absolute inequalities in mortality have stopped increasing, seemingly due to reduction in inequalities in CVD mortality. Absolute inequality in mortality continues to widen among women, mostly due to death from lung cancer and chronic lung disease. Relative educational inequalities in mortality are still on the rise for Norwegian men and women.

Educational differences in mortality and the relative importance of different causes of death: a 7-year follow-up study of Spanish adults

BackgroundThe evidence on mortality patterns by education in Spain comes from regional areas. This study aimed to estimate these patterns in the whole Spanish population.MethodsAll citizens aged 25 years and...

Why does Spain have smaller inequalities in mortality? An exploration of potential explanations

While educational inequalities in mortality are substantial in most European countries, they are relatively small in Spain. A better understanding of the causes of these smaller inequalities in Spain may help to develop policies to reduce inequalities in mortality elsewhere. The aim of the present study was therefore to identify the specific causes of death and determinants contributing to these smaller inequalities. Data on mortality by education were obtained from longitudinal mortality studies in three Spanish populations (Barcelona, Madrid, the Basque Country), and six other Western European populations. Data on determinants by education were obtained from health interview surveys. The Spanish populations have considerably smaller absolute inequalities in mortality than other Western European populations. This is due mainly to smaller inequalities in mortality from cardiovascular disease (men) and cancer (women). Inequalities in mortality from most other causes are not smaller in Spain than elsewhere. Spain also has smaller inequalities in smoking and sedentary lifestyle and this is due to more smoking and physical inactivity in higher educated groups. Overall, the situation with regard to health inequalities does not appear to be more favourable in Spain than in other Western European populations. Smaller inequalities in mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer in Spain are likely to be related to its later socio-economic modernization. Although these smaller inequalities in mortality seem to be a historical coincidence rather than the outcome of deliberate policies, the Spanish example does suggest that large inequalities in total mortality are not inevitable.

Socioeconomic inequalities in mortality in 16 European cities

To explore inequalities in total mortality between small areas of 16 European cities for men and women, as well as to analyse the relationship between these geographical inequalities and their socioeconomic indicators. A cross-sectional ecological design was used to analyse small areas in 16 European cities (26,229,104 inhabitants). Most cities had mortality data for a period between 2000 and 2008 and population size data for the same period. Socioeconomic indicators included an index of socioeconomic deprivation, unemployment, and educational level. We estimated standardised mortality ratios and controlled for their variability using Bayesian models. We estimated relative risk of mortality and excess number of deaths according to socioeconomic indicators. We observed a consistent pattern of inequality in mortality in almost all cities, with mortality increasing in parallel with socioeconomic deprivation. Socioeconomic inequalities in mortality were more pronounced for men than women, and relative inequalities were greater in Eastern and Northern European cities, and lower in some Western (men) and Southern (women) European cities. The pattern of excess number of deaths was slightly different, with greater inequality in some Western and Northern European cities and also in Budapest, and lower among women in Madrid and Barcelona. In this study, we report a consistent pattern of socioeconomic inequalities in mortality in 16 European cities. Future studies should further explore specific causes of death, in order to determine whether the general pattern observed is consistent for each cause of death.

Socioeconomic inequalities in homicide mortality: a population-based comparative study of 12 European countries

Recent research has suggested that violent mortality may be socially patterned and a potentially important source of health inequalities within and between countries. Against this background the current study assessed socioeconomic inequalities in homicide mortality across Europe. To do this, longitudinal and cross-sectional data were obtained from mortality registers and population censuses in 12 European countries. Educational level was used to indicate socioeconomic position. Age-standardized mortality rates were calculated for post, upper and lower secondary or less educational groups. The magnitude of inequalities was assessed using the relative and slope index of inequality. The analysis focused on the 35-64 age group. Educational inequalities in homicide mortality were present in all countries. Absolute inequalities in homicide mortality were larger in the eastern part of Europe and in Finland, consistent with their higher overall homicide rates. They contributed 2.5% at most (in Estonia) to the inequalities in total mortality. Relative inequalities were high in the northern and eastern part of Europe, but were low in Belgium, Switzerland and Slovenia. Patterns were less consistent among women. Socioeconomic inequalities in homicide are thus a universal phenomenon in Europe. Wide-ranging social and inter-sectoral health policies are now needed to address the risk of violent victimization that target both potential offenders and victims.

Socioeconomic inequalities in cause specific mortality among older people in France

BackgroundEuropean comparative studies documented a clear North-South divide in socioeconomic inequalities with cancer being the most important contributor to inequalities in total mortality among middle aged men in Latin Europe (France, Spain, Portugal, Italy). The aim of this paper is to investigate educational inequalities in mortality by gender, age and causes of death in France, with a special emphasis on people aged 75 years and more.MethodsWe used data from a longitudinal population sample that includes 1% of the French population. Risk of death (total and cause specific) in the period 1990-1999 according to education was analysed using Cox regression models by age group (45-59, 60-74, and 75+). Inequalities were quantified using both relative (ratio) and absolute (difference) measures.ResultsRelative inequalities decreased with age but were still observed in the oldest age group. Absolute inequalities increased with age. This increase was particularly pronounced for cardiovascular diseases. The contribution of different causes of death to absolute inequalities in total mortality differed between age groups. In particular, the contribution of cancer deaths decreased substantially between the age groups 60-74 years and 75 years and more, both in men and in women.ConclusionsThis study suggests that the large contribution of cancer deaths to the excess mortality among low educated people that was observed among middle aged men in Latin Europe is not observed among French people aged 75 years and more. This should be confirmed among other Latin Europe countries.

Socioeconomic inequalities in lung cancer mortality in 16 European populations

Objectives This paper aims to describe socioeconomic inequalities in lung cancer mortality in Europe and to get further insight into socioeconomic inequalities in lung cancer mortality in different European populations by relating these to socioeconomic inequalities in overall mortality and smoking within the same or reference populations. Particular attention is paid to inequalities in Eastern European and Baltic countries. Methods Data were obtained from mortality registers, population censuses and health interview surveys in 16 European populations. Educational inequalities in lung cancer and total mortality were assessed by direct standardization and calculation of two indices of inequality: the Relative Index of Inequality (RII) and the Slope Index of Inequality (SII). SIIs were used to calculate the contribution of inequalities in lung cancer mortality to inequalities in total mortality. Indices of inequality in lung cancer mortality in the age group 40–59 years were compared with indices of inequalities in smoking taking into account a time lag of 20 years. Results The pattern of inequalities in Eastern European and Baltic countries is more or less similar as the one observed in the Northern countries. Among men educational inequalities are largest in the Eastern European and Baltic countries. Among women they are largest in Northern European countries. Whereas among Southern European women lung cancer mortality rates are still higher among the high educated, we observe a negative association between smoking and education among young female adults. The contribution of lung cancer mortality inequalities to total mortality inequalities is in most male populations more than 10%. Important smoking inequalities are observed among young adults in all populations. In Sweden, Hungary and the Czech Republic smoking inequalities among young adult women are larger than lung cancer mortality inequalities among women aged 20 years older. Conclusions Important socioeconomic inequalities exist in lung cancer mortality in Europe. They are consistent with the geographical spread of the smoking epidemic. In the next decades socioeconomic inequalities in lung cancer mortality are likely to persist and even increase among women. In Southern European countries we may expect a reversal from a positive to a negative association between socioeconomic status and lung cancer mortality. Continuous efforts are necessary to tackle socioeconomic inequalities in lung cancer mortality in all European countries.

Trends in socioeconomic mortality inequalities in a southern European urban setting at the turn of the 21st century

Objective:To analyse trends in mortality inequalities by educational level for main causes of death among men and women in Barcelona, Spain, at the turn of the 21st century (1992–2003).Methods:The population...

Educational inequalities in cause-specific mortality in middle-aged and older men and women in eight western European populations

Background Studies of socioeconomic disparities in patterns of cause of death have been limited to single countries, middle-aged people, men, or broad cause of death groups. We assessed contribution of specific causes of death to disparities in mortality between groups with different levels of education, in men and women, middle-aged and old, in eight western European populations. Methods We analysed data from longitudinal mortality studies by cause of death, between Jan 1, 1990, and Dec 31, 1997. Data were included for more than 1 million deaths in 51 million person years of observation. Findings Absolute educational inequalities in total mortality peaked at 2127 deaths per 100 000 person years in men, and at 1588 deaths per 100 000 person years in women aged 75 years and older. In this age-group, rate ratios were greater than 1·00 for total mortality and all specific causes of death, apart form prostate cancer in men and lung cancer in women, showing increased mortality in low versus high eductational groups. In men, cardiovascular diseases accounted for 39% of the difference between low and high eductational groups in total mortality, cancer for 24%, other diseases for 32%, and external causes for 5%. Among women, contributions were 60%, 11%, 30%, and 0%, respectively. The contributions of cerebrovascular disease, other cardiovascular diseases, pneumonia, and COPD strongly increased by age, whereas those of cancer and external causes declined. Although relative inequalities in total mortality were closely similar in all populations, we noted striking differences in the contribution of specific causes to these inequalities. Interpretation Research needs to be broadened to include older populations, other diseases, and populations from different parts of Europe. Effective interventions should be developed and implemented to reduce exposure to cardiovascular risk factors in low-educational groups. Studies of socioeconomic disparities in patterns of cause of death have been limited to single countries, middle-aged people, men, or broad cause of death groups. We assessed contribution of specific causes of death to disparities in mortality between groups with different levels of education, in men and women, middle-aged and old, in eight western European populations. We analysed data from longitudinal mortality studies by cause of death, between Jan 1, 1990, and Dec 31, 1997. Data were included for more than 1 million deaths in 51 million person years of observation. Absolute educational inequalities in total mortality peaked at 2127 deaths per 100 000 person years in men, and at 1588 deaths per 100 000 person years in women aged 75 years and older. In this age-group, rate ratios were greater than 1·00 for total mortality and all specific causes of death, apart form prostate cancer in men and lung cancer in women, showing increased mortality in low versus high eductational groups. In men, cardiovascular diseases accounted for 39% of the difference between low and high eductational groups in total mortality, cancer for 24%, other diseases for 32%, and external causes for 5%. Among women, contributions were 60%, 11%, 30%, and 0%, respectively. The contributions of cerebrovascular disease, other cardiovascular diseases, pneumonia, and COPD strongly increased by age, whereas those of cancer and external causes declined. Although relative inequalities in total mortality were closely similar in all populations, we noted striking differences in the contribution of specific causes to these inequalities. Research needs to be broadened to include older populations, other diseases, and populations from different parts of Europe. Effective interventions should be developed and implemented to reduce exposure to cardiovascular risk factors in low-educational groups.

Educational inequalities in cause-specific mortality in middle-aged and older men and women in eight western European populations

Studies of socioeconomic disparities in patterns of cause of death have been limited to single countries, middle-aged people, men, or broad cause of death groups. We assessed contribution of specific causes of death to disparities in mortality between groups with different levels of education, in men and women, middle-aged and old, in eight western European populations. We analysed data from longitudinal mortality studies by cause of death, between Jan 1, 1990, and Dec 31, 1997. Data were included for more than 1 million deaths in 51 million person years of observation. Absolute educational inequalities in total mortality peaked at 2127 deaths per 100000 person years in men, and at 1588 deaths per 100000 person years in women aged 75 years and older. In this age-group, rate ratios were greater than 1.00 for total mortality and all specific causes of death, apart form prostate cancer in men and lung cancer in women, showing increased mortality in low versus high educational groups. In men, cardiovascular diseases accounted for 39% of the difference between low and high educational groups in total mortality, cancer for 24%, other diseases for 32%, and external causes for 5%. Among women, contributions were 60%, 11%, 30%, and 0%, respectively. The contributions of cerebrovascular disease, other cardiovascular diseases, pneumonia, and COPD strongly increased by age, whereas those of cancer and external causes declined. Although relative inequalities in total mortality were closely similar in all populations, we noted striking differences in the contribution of specific causes to these inequalities. Research needs to be broadened to include older populations, other diseases, and populations from different parts of Europe. Effective interventions should be developed and implemented to reduce exposure to cardiovascular risk factors in low-educational groups.

Desigualdades en mortalidad en la ciudad de Sevilla

Objectives: To describe social inequalities in mortality in Seville from 1994 to 1998 according to socioeconomic status. Methods: Life expectancy, crude and age-adjusted rates of total mortality as well as mortality by causes and potential years of life lost were estimated using the number of deaths and the population of Seville, aggregated by Basic Health Areas (BHA). BHA were divided in three levels according to the unemployment rate among men. The relative risks of total mortality and mortality by causes were estimated for men and women in each of these levels, using Poisson regression. The unemployment rate of each of the BHA was related to total mortality and to some of its causes. Results: Differences in life expectancy of up to 7.9 years for men and 4.6 years for women were found among BHA. Concerning potential years of life lost, the areas with the highest mortality showed 4.1 times greater mortality in men and 2.6 times greater mortality in women than those with the lowest mortality. Total mortality increased with unemployment rate: the BHA with the highest unemployment rate showed a 15% increase in mortality in men and a 6% increase in that in women than those with the lowest unemployment rate. Among causes of mortality, AIDS showed the greatest inequalities in both men and women. Conclusions: From 1994 to 1998, Seville presented inequalities in total mortality and premature mortality, as well as in mortality by causes per BHA. Inequalities were present in men and women, although they were greater in men. There was a clear association between socioeconomic variables and mortality.

Inequalities in mortality in Seville [Spain

OBJECTIVES To describe social inequalities in mortality in Seville from 1994 to 1998 according to socioeconomic status. METHODS Life expectancy, crude and age-adjusted rates of total mortality as well as mortality by causes and potential years of life lost were estimated using the number of deaths and the population of Seville, aggregated by Basic Health Areas (BHA). BHA were divided in three levels according to the unemployment rate among men. The relative risks of total mortality and mortality by causes were estimated for men and women in each of these levels, using Poisson regression. The unemployment rate of each of the BHA was related to total mortality and to some of its causes. RESULTS Differences in life expectancy of up to 7.9 years for men and 4.6 years for women were found among BHA. Concerning potential years of life lost, the areas with the highest mortality showed 4.1 times greater mortality in men and 2.6 times greater mortality in women than those with the lowest mortality. Total mortality increased with unemployment rate: the BHA with the highest unemployment rate showed a 15% increase in mortality in men and a 6% increase in that in women than those with the lowest unemployment rate. Among causes of mortality, AIDS showed the greatest inequalities in both men and women. CONCLUSIONS From 1994 to 1998, Seville presented inequalities in total mortality and premature mortality, as well as in mortality by causes per BHA. Inequalities were present in men and women, although they were greater in men. There was a clear association between socioeconomic variables and mortality.

Desigualdades en mortalidad en la ciudad de Sevilla

ObjectivesTo describe social inequalities in mortality in Seville from 1994 to 1998 according to socioeconomic status. MethodsLife expectancy, crude and age-adjusted rates of total mortality as well as mortality by causes and potential years of life lost were estimated using the number of deaths and the population of Seville, aggregated by Basic Health Areas (BHA). BHA were divided in three levels according to the unemployment rate among men. The relative risks of total mortality and mortality by causes were estimated for men and women in each of these levels, using Poisson regression. The unemployment rate of each of the BHA was related to total mortality and to some of its causes. ResultsDifferences in life expectancy of up to 7.9 years for men and 4.6 years for women were found among BHA. Concerning potential years of life lost, the areas with the highest mortality showed 4.1 times greater mortality in men and 2.6 times greater mortality in women than those with the lowest mortality. Total mortality increased with unemployment rate: the BHA with the highest unemployment rate showed a 15% increase in mortality in men and a 6% increase in that in women than those with the lowest unemployment rate. Among causes of mortality, AIDS showed the greatest inequalities in both men and women. ConclusionsFrom 1994 to 1998, Seville presented inequalities in total mortality and premature mortality, as well as in mortality by causes per BHA. Inequalities were present in men and women, although they were greater in men. There was a clear association between socioeconomic variables and mortality.

Widening socioeconomic inequalities in mortality in six Western European countries.

During the past decades a widening of the relative gap in death rates between upper and lower socioeconomic groups has been reported for several European countries. Although differential mortality decline for cardiovascular diseases has been suggested as an important contributory factor, it is not known what its quantitative contribution was, and to what extent other causes of death have contributed to the widening gap in total mortality. We collected data on mortality by educational level and occupational class among men and women from national longitudinal studies in Finland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, England/Wales, and Italy (Turin), and analysed age-standardized death rates in two recent time periods (1981-1985 and 1991-1995), both total mortality and by cause of death. For simplicity, we report on inequalities in mortality between two broad socioeconomic groups (high and low educational level, non-manual and manual occupations). Relative inequalities in total mortality have increased in all six countries, but absolute differences in total mortality were fairly stable, with the exception of Finland where an increase occurred. In most countries, mortality from cardiovascular diseases declined proportionally faster in the upper socioeconomic groups. The exception is Italy (Turin) where the reverse occurred. In all countries with the exception of Italy (Turin), changes in cardiovascular disease mortality contributed about half of the widening relative gap for total mortality. Other causes also made important contributions to the widening gap in total mortality. For these causes, widening inequalities were sometimes due to increasing mortality rates in the lower socioeconomic groups. We found rising rates of mortality from lung cancer, breast cancer, respiratory disease, gastrointestinal disease, and injuries among men and/or women in lower socioeconomic groups in several countries. Reducing socioeconomic inequalities in mortality in Western Europe critically depends upon speeding up mortality declines from cardiovascular diseases in lower socioeconomic groups, and countering mortality increases from several other causes of death in lower socioeconomic groups.