Inefficient Water Use Research Articles

IoT-based smart irrigation management system to enhance agricultural water security using embedded systems, telemetry data, and cloud computing

Agriculture, the key sector for food production, faces challenges exacerbated by the growing global demand for food and the scarcity of water resources. Traditional irrigation methods often lead to inefficient use of water, resulting in wastage. Moreover, unpredictable weather conditions and the need to adopt sustainable farming practices are driving us to develop advanced irrigation systems. This paper proposed a smart irrigation management system using new technology like 1) embedded systems, 2) Internet of Things (IoT), 3) telemetry data, 4) cloud computing, communication protocol, and 5) sensors to collect and process real-time data of the smart agriculture. This new technology and intelligent algorithm are used in this paper to improve agricultural practices. The architecture of the proposed scheme comprises three layers: 1) IoT devices, 2) ThingsBoard cloud, and 3) the dashboard, each playing a pivotal role in ensuring seamless data flow, secure communication, and enhanced user interaction. The algorithm orchestrates system operations, incorporating sensor data reading, JavaScript Object Syntax (JSON) payload creation, and secure telemetry data transmission via Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) protocol to the ThingsBoard cloud. Pump activation decisions are governed by predefined thresholds, preventing an over-irrigation system. The evaluation of system performance involves deploying temperature, humidity, moisture, and water level sensors in a testing field. Further, before data is sent to the cloud, sensor values are calibrated using a functional map. Tests carried out with temperature, humidity, and water level sensors demonstrate the system's dynamic efficiency. By visualizing and analyzing environmental information via ThingsBoard, the results provide real-time data on environmental parameters of the system proposed, improving the efficiency of water use and the sustainability of farming practices. In addition, the system features e-mail notifications for alerts. The integration of e-mail notifications reinforces monitoring and management practices by alerting farm owners and users. This study showcases the efficacy of the proposed paper in enhancing sustainability, water usage, and supporting smart agriculture practices. Further, this paper integrates embedded systems, IoT, cloud computing, and advanced algorithms to optimize and enhance crop productivity and contribute to global food and water security.

The Evaluation of Water Loss in The Western North Tarum Irrigation Channel

The Western North Tarum Irrigation channel plays a crucial role in supplying water to irrigated agricultural areas. However, it encounters challenges in ensuring adequate water delivery to all channel segments. This research assesses water loss during the distribution process in the Western North Tarum Irrigation channel, focusing on the evaluation of channel capacity and the impact of suboptimal water management on water loss. The study employs the HEC-RAS model, a hydraulic system analysis tool, to evaluate the channel’s capacity and simulates its behavior under various discharge conditions. The evaluation reveals that two channel segments, B.TUB 13 and B.TUB 25, have exceeded their capacity limits, resulting in overflow. Sedimentation downstream, particularly in these segments, exacerbates the issue by altering the channel slope and impeding water flow. This research identifies poor water distribution management as a significant factor contributing to water loss in the irrigation channel. Inadequate scheduling and the absence of proper water measurement tools result in instances of overwatering or underwatering in some areas. The lack of monitoring and control in the irrigation system hampers the detection of uncontrolled flow in the channels, leading to substantial water loss and inefficient water use. This research underscores the importance of evaluating and maintaining irrigation channel capacity to prevent overflow and water loss. Furthermore, it emphasizes the significance of effective water management to achieve more efficient water distribution and irrigation. Addressing these challenges is crucial for ensuring the long-term sustainability of irrigated agriculture in the Western North Tarum Irrigation area.Keywords: HEC-RAS, Irrigation Channel, Water Distribution, Water Loss, Western North Tarum

METHOD AND MEANS OF INCREASING THE ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF COMPRESSED AIR PRODUCTION IN THE TECHNOLOGICAL PROCESS OF WOOD PROCESSING

Today, energy saving and energy efficiency are becoming more and more relevant and critical for modern enterprises, institutions and companies. Modern strategies in these areas are aimed at optimizing the use of energy resources and increasing the productivity of production processes. The high level of energy efficiency achieved is reflected in the competitiveness of products on world markets, thanks to the reduction of energy costs and the limitation of greenhouse gas emissions. Compressed air is an important resource for industry, often ranking fourth behind electricity, gas and water. The difference is that compressed air is produced on-site, giving consumers more control over its use and costs. However, the process of obtaining it requires significant energy costs. At enterprises in Europe and Australia, for example, compressor units that produce compressed air can use up to 10% of electricity, while in the United States this figure can reach 30%. Currently, the energy efficiency of the Ukrainian economy is twice as high as compared to world standards, which indicates inefficient use of heat, water and electricity. Therefore, it is important to understand that the implementation of measures for the energy efficiency of compressed air production is not only important from an ecological point of view, but also economically beneficial both for the country as a whole and for individual consumers. Increasing the level of energy efficiency of production processes, in particular wood processing, with the help of modern electrical engineering complexes, is a priority task for the industry. Thus, the analysis and development of energy-efficient solutions for the production of compressed air is a promising direction of development. This article provides an overview of well-known electrotechnical complexes that contribute to improving the energy efficiency of the technological process of wood processing.

Climate Change and its Potential Impacts on Iraqi Environment: Overview

Deforestation, agricultural practices, and greenhouse gas emissions from burning fossil fuels have all contributed to global warming and climate change since the Industrial Revolution. Observed and predicted climate changes include rising sea levels, altered rainfall patterns, altered frequency and distribution of weather events like heat waves, storms, floods, and droughts, as well as the effects on natural and human systems.. Iraq, in particular, is experiencing the full range of climate change effects, which is exacerbated by the country’s precarious state and dilapidated infrastructure. Iraq has been listed as the fifth worst-affected country to climate change due to variables such as rising temperatures, less and erratic rainfall, increased droughts and water scarcity, frequent sand and dust storms, and flooding. In addition, neighbouring countries’ water policies have reduced vital water sources, while rapid population growth, urbanization, and inefficient water use by the agricultural and industrial sectors are driving a demand for more water. The objective of the current study is to focus on Iraq’s major climate change issues, which include: Growing Desertification, Drought, and scarcity of water.

Improvements in Frequency Control of an AC Microgrid by Means of Micro-Hydropower Combined Flow-Reduced Dump Load Control Method

Load Frequency Control (LFC) is an issue of top importance to ensure microgrids (MGs) safe and reliable operation in AC MGs. Primary frequency control of each energy source can be guaranteed in AC MGs in order to integrate other energy sources. This paper proposes a micro-hydro frequency control scheme, combining the control of a reduced dump load and the nozzle flow control of Pelton turbines operating in isolated from electricity grid. Some researchs have reported the integration of dump load and flow control methods, but they did not reduce the dump load value and adjust the nozzle flow linearly to the power value demanded by users, causing the inefficient use of water. Simulation results were obtained in Matlab®/Simulink® using models obtained from previous research and proven by means of experimental studies. The simulation of the proposed scheme shows that instantaneous frequency variation is about 2 % even for perturbations magnitude up to 12 %. The validation result shows a 60 % reduction in overshoot and settling time of frequency temporal behaviour operating the micro-hydro autonomously.

Produtividade da água em coqueiro irrigado nas condições de clima tropical úmido na Amazônia Oriental

ABSTRACT: The growing demand for coconut water has led to the expansion of irrigated green dwarf coconut cultivation; however, the inefficient use of water has contributed to the degradation and waste of water resources, making fundamental studies aiming to optimize the use of water. The objective of this study was to determine the physical productivity and water productivity of green dwarf coconut palms under the climatic conditions of Santa Izabel do Pará, eastern Amazonia, Brazil. The experiment was carried out from 2020 to 2021, in a green dwarf coconut plantation spaced 7.5 m x 7.5 m in a triangle, at Fazenda Reunidas Sococo, with an area of approximately 7 ha. Water productivity (WP) was determined both in terms of fruit production (WPf) and coconut water production (WPca), through the relationship of fruit productivity (fruit biomass and water volume) with accumulated evapotranspiration. The dwarf coconut tree presented a total production of 105 and 186 fruits plant-1 and 37 and 62 L plant-1 of coconut water in the years 2020 and 2021. The largest volumes of water and the highest weights occurred during the wettest season. WPf was of 1.87 fruits m-3 (2020) and 2.94 fruits m-3 (2021) and WPca 0.66 L m-3 (2020) and 0.98 L m-3 (2021).

The efficiency of eco-innovation activities in EU countries. The DEA approach

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: Innovation is a significant factor in socio-economic development, and it is principal in achieving a competitive advantage among enterprises, regions, and countries. The purposes of this paper are: (1) to present, on the basis of the available literature, the essence and metrics of eco-innovation activities in EU countries, (2) to analyze the effectiveness of eco-innovation activities in EU countries using the Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) method.
 THE RESEARCH PROBLEM AND METHODS: The research primarily focuses on a review of the recent literature and an analysis of the efficiency of eco-innovation activity using the DEA method. The empirical analysis is based on the Eco-innovation Scoreboard.
 THE PROCESS OF ARGUMENTATION: The analysis mainly determines the efficiency of eco-innovation. The theoretical basis for the considerations is a diagnosis of the existing state of eco-innovation in EU countries.
 RESEARCH RESULTS: The results illustrate the efficiency of eco-innovation activity in some EU countries against the backdrop of other EU countries. The analysis of eco-innovation activities and strategies to support them in the EU countries presented in this study is based on a diagnosis of the current state of their economies in this area using the methods of DEA and literature review. The results of this research enable us to draw concrete conclusions on the efficiency of eco-innovation activities.
 CONCLUSIONS, INNOVATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS: The results of the Eco-innovation Scoreboard for these countries illustrate an inefficient use of materials, water and energy resources, as well as low resource productivity. The gaps in this scope between Central-Eastern and Western EU countries are diminishing, but there are still institutional, legislative, and economic shortcomings in eco-innovation that should be addressed. The analysis indicates the level of eco-innovation development in EU countries, its efficiency, and the potential for supporting activity in this field by these countries.

Stimulating growth, root quality, and yield of carrots cultivated under full and limited irrigation levels by humic and potassium applications

Water stress poses a significant challenge for carrot cultivation, leading to decreased yield and inefficient water use efficiency. Therefore, it is crucial to provide plants with suitable supplements that enhance their stress resistance. In this study, we investigated the effectiveness of humic and potassium applications on carrot growth, yield characteristics, root quality, and water use efficiency under varying irrigation levels. A split-split plot experiment was conducted, with two levels of gross water requirements (GWR) (100% and 80%) assigned to the main plots. The subplots were treated with humic acid through foliar application (Hsp) or soil drenching (Hgd). The sub-subplots were further divided to assess the impact of foliar potassium sources (potassium humate, Kh) and mineral applications (potassium sulfate, K2SO4). The results revealed a substantial reduction in carrot yield under limited irrigation, reaching about 32.2% lower than under GWR100%. Therefore, under limited irrigation conditions, the combined application of Hgd and K2SO4 resulted in a significant yield increase of 78.9% compared to the control under GWR80%. Conversely, under GWR100%, the highest average yield was achieved by applying either Hsp and Kh or Hsp and K2SO4, resulting in yields of 35,833 kg ha−1 and 40,183 kg ha−1, respectively. However, the combination of Hgd and Kh negatively affected the yield under both GWR100% and GWR80%. Nonetheless, applying Kh in combination with Hgd under GWR80% led to improved nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, potassium/sodium ratio, and total sugar concentrations, while reducing sodium content in carrot roots. Based on this study, it is recommended to adopt GWR80% and treat plants with a combination of Hgd and foliar K2SO4. This approach can help plants overcome the negative effects of water stress, improve yield and root quality, and achieve optimal water use efficiency.

Water Quality and Water Borne Diseases in India: A Review

Climate change is impacting seriously human lives and human health in varied ways. Environmental pollution like air and water pollution are taking heavy toll on human beings. The increasing demand of water lead to its over exploitation and pollution and inefficient water use policies and methods are due to unchecked population growth and expansion of economic activities. Water quality problems are increasing and so are the water borne diseases. Various laws, policies and programmes are started by governments but the quality of water is deteriorating day by day.

Evaluating the effectiveness of different irrigation systems in arid regions: A survey Based Analysis

Low precipitation and high temperatures in arid locations cause a shortage of water supplies and water stress. As it helps maintain and boost crop production, irrigation is an essential tool for agriculture in these areas. However, in arid areas, the efficacy of various irrigation techniques might vary greatly. The purpose of this essay is to assess the efficacy of various irrigation techniques in arid areas, such as conventional surface irrigation, drip irrigation, and spray irrigation. In arid areas, surface irrigation is the most popular type of irrigation, when water is applied to the soil's surface through ditches or furrows. Although this technique is straightforward and low-cost, water losses from evaporation and runoff may happen, leading to inefficient water use and poor crop output. By using a system of pipes and emitters, drip irrigation, on the other hand, feeds water directly to plant roots. Higher water use efficiency and crop yields are the results of this system's reduced water losses and accurate water distribution to the plants.

Green, blue and economic water productivity: a water footprint perspective from the Upper Awash Basin, Central Ethiopia

Abstract The rise in global freshwater consumption, inefficient water use and population growth are the main drivers of water scarcity and food insecurity. This study analyzed the green, blue and economic water productivity (GWP, BWP and EWP, respectively) of the rainfed (teff, maize and sorghum) and irrigated (sugarcane) crops along with green water scarcity (GWS) in the Upper Awash Basin using water footprints (WFs) approaches. Teff has the lowest average GWP (∼0.3 kg/m3) and the highest average WF (4205 m3/ton) between 2000 and 2010 with an average EWP of ∼0.3 USD/m3 which is higher than those of other rainfed cereal crops (maize and sorghum). The highest GWS of maize was recorded in Metehara (269 mm/growing period) and the lowest in Debrezeit (70 mm/growing period) with an intermediate value of 90 and 117 mm in Wonji and Melkassa, respectively. All the rainfed crops have lower EWP (less than 0.3 USD/m3) compared with the irrigated sugarcane in the basin. This study demonstrates that increasing the value per unit of green/blue water through increasing yield per unit of supply and switching from high to low WFs crops has significant implications for addressing the water scarcity problem by setting a WP benchmark in the basin.

Physiological Characteristics to Indicate Water Use Efficiency and Drought Tolerance of 30 Indonesian Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] Accessions

Water use efficiency (WUE) is an essential subject in drought-restricted agricultures. Physiological parameters can be used to understand plant efficiencies in water usage. This research aimed to understand the physiological characteristics of 30 Indonesian sorghum accessions (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench), which indicate WUE and drought tolerance. Field research was conducted at Cibinong Science Center, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN) using Randomized Block Design with 30 sorghum accessions in 3 replicates. Experimental parameters included photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD), stomatal conductance (GSW), photosynthetic (A) and transpiration (E) rates, and Leaf Area Index (LAI). The WUE was measured using four different approaches: instantaneous WUE (A:E), intrinsic WUE (A:GSW), and the relation between the biomass dry weight (BDW)/A and BDW/E. Based on WUE measurements, we concluded that sorghum accessions could be clustered into five groups, from the most efficient to inefficient water use. We also found that in some cases, WUE based on single leaf measurement had a positive correlation with WUE based on biomass, indicating its sufficiency in determining WUE status. The inconsistencies may be due to different sorghum physiological characteristics regarding gas exchange due to external stimuli (PPFD).

Wheat straw biochar amendment significantly reduces nutrient leaching and increases green pepper yield in a less fertile soil

Declining soil fertility and inefficient water and nutrient use pose a growing challenge to increasing agricultural production to meet growing global food demand. As a soil amendment, biochar can potentially serve in addressing these issues; however, its impacts on nutrient leaching from soils of different pre-existing fertility levels are poorly understood. A potted green pepper ( Capsicum annuum L. var. Red Night) production system, arranged in a randomized complete block design, imposed two soil fertility management approaches (‘fertile’: standard soil + [N:P:K (kg ha −1 ) 140:165:160] vs. ‘less fertile soil’: 1:1 standard soil : sand, [N:P:K (kg ha −1 ) 140:190:240], factorially combined with three levels of wheat straw biochar amendment [0%, 1%, and 3% (w/w)]. Biochar treatment effects on nutrient leaching ( NO 3 − -N and PO 4 3 − -P ) and plant yield were assessed for each soil fertility management approach. Across soil fertility types, biochar amendments ( vs. the lack thereof) significantly decreased ( p ≤ 0 . 05 ) leachate volume (68%–91%) and cumulative NO 3 − -N (78%–93%) and PO 4 3 − -P (80%–99%) losses, whereas NO 3 − -N , and PO 4 3 − -P concentrations in the leachate were only significantly reduced (p ≤ 0.05) under the 3% biochar amendment. Pepper marketable yield in the less fertile soil was significantly (40%, p ≤ 0 . 05 ) greater under the 3% biochar amendment than the non-amended treatment; however, no such difference existed in the fertile soil given its initially high soil nutrient levels. While farmers can amend soils with biochar to reduce nutrient leaching, its impact on plant productivity will depend on the rate of amendment. • Biochar significantly increased water use in fertile and less fertile soils. • Biochar amendment drives soil organic matter content than soil fertility status. • Soil nitrate-N loss was chemically driven in fertile and less fertile soils. • Biochar increased pepper yield in nutrient-deficient sandy soils. • Root length & surface area regulate pepper yield than root diameter & total volume.

AN INVESTIGATION ON MALAYSIA CONSUMER’S WILLINGNESS-TO-PAY FOR WATER USING INCOME AND USE OF GOODS

It is quite common for people to under value public goods (like water); mainly because they are often provided for the public to use at the discretion of the government (e.g., with subsidy, discount) unlike other economic goods (like commercial products) offered for buyers at market price by practitioners. In Malaysia, the government subsidizes the price of water for the public to ensure they have easy access to drinking water and affordability. With continued increase of water demand, consumption and wastage, low water tariff is suggested as one of many factors contributing towards Malaysian public’s inefficient water use. To curb inefficiency, the government is suggested to practice high water tariff; this however is a sensitive issue since the public views water both as a public (social) good and is a human right. So, the question of how much one is willing to pay (WTP) becomes an important issue to explore. WTP refers to the final decision made on how much cash the consumer is willing to pay for a supply of water. In Malaysia’s case, WTP is linked to whether the public is willing to pay more for water services as they are used to paying less in the past. Ranges of water pricing consumers are willing to pay to get water provision in different countries have been reported in the literature; income and use of the good are the common economic determinants to measure WTP. This study investigates the role played by income and use of goods as components of basic economic model in influencing consumers’ WTP to pay more for water tariff. The online survey was participated by 252 household representatives (paid water users) in Malaysia. From one-way ANOVA tests carried out, this study found that both income and use of goods acted as determinants of WTP.

SEKTÖRLER ARASI SU REKABETİ VE HARRAN OVASI TARIM İŞLETMELERİNİN SULAMA ALGISI ÜZERİNE BİR ARAŞTIRMA

Son yüzyılda dünya nüfusu yaklaşık 4,4 kat artarken, su tüketimi ise yaklaşık 7,3 kat artmıştır. Tarım sektörü, dünyadaki su kaynaklarının yaklaşık %70’ini tüketmektedir. Sanayi, enerji ve belediye hizmetleri gibi sektörlerin de su talebi artmaktadır. Ortaya çıkan rekabet, diğer sektörlerin, tarım sektörünün kullandığı sudan pay talep etmeleri anlamına gelmektedir. Tarım sektörünün, yeni riskler barındıran bu gelişmelerden olumsuz yönde etkileneceği öngörülmektedir. Tarım, aşırı su kullanımı, su kıtlığı ve çevre kirliliği gibi negatif dışsallıklardan da sorumlu tutulmaktadır. Tarımda suyun aşırı ve verimsiz kullanılmasını etkileyen başlıca faktörler, üreticilerin suyun gerçek maliyetini ödememesi ve sulama konusundaki yanlış algılardır. Bu bağlamda, Harran Ovasındaki tarım işletmelerinin sulama algıları araştırılmıştır. Yüz yüze anket yoluyla elde edilen verilere tek yönlü varyans analizi uygulanmıştır. Araştırmadan çıkan en çarpıcı sonuç; üreticilerin %31,1’inin fazla su kullanmanın verimi arttıracağı algısı taşımalarıdır. Eğitim ve gelir bağımsız değişkenleri, “fazla su kullanımı verimi arttırır” bağımlı değişkeni açısından istatistiki olarak anlamlıdır (p

Qinghai Province Water-saving Agriculture Zoning Study

The factors affecting the development of agriculture in Qinghai Province are geographical location, climate as well as inefficient agricultural water use and wasted water resources. In this paper, four level 1 indicators and 10 level 2 indicators are established based on the topography, climate, water resources and crop cultivation structure to determine the index system of the partition. This is to provide a basis for the development of agricultural modernization in Qinghai Province.

Combined Method of Flow-Reduced Dump Load for Frequency Control of an Autonomous Micro-Hydropower in AC Microgrids

Nowadays, microgrids (MGs) play a crucial role in modern power systems due to possibility of integrating renewable energies into grid-connected or islanded power systems. The Load Frequency Control (LFC) is an issue of paramount importance to ensure MGs reliable and safe operation. Specifically, in AC MGs, primary frequency control of each energy source can be guaranteed in order to integrate other energy sources. This paper proposes a micro-hydro frequency control scheme, combining the control of a reduced dump load and the nozzle flow control of Pelton turbines operating in autonomous regime. Some works have reported the integration of dump load and flow control methods, but they did not reduce the dump load value and adjust the nozzle flow linearly to the power value demanded by users, causing the inefficient use of water. Simulation results were obtained in Matlab®/Simulink® using models obtained from previous research and proven by means of experimental studies. The simulation of the proposed scheme shows that the frequency control in this plant is done in correspondence with the Cuban NC62-04 norm of power energy quality. In addition, it is possible to increase energy efficiency by reducing the value of the resistive dump load by up to 7.5% in a case study. The validation result shows a 60% reduction of overshoot and settling time of frequency temporal behavior of the autonomous micro-hydro.

ESTIMATION OF WATER REQUIREMENTS AND VALUE OF WATER IN AGRICULTURAL SECTOR IN EAST JAVA: THE CASE OF RICE PLANT

Water resources is one of the inputs in rice production. In agricultural sector, water is considered as free good or priceless despite having a high use value. That implicated to the inefficient use of water in each provinces of Indonesia including East Java with no exception. This study aims to estimate the value of water and water requirements in agriculture especially rice in East Java. This study uses two quantitative analysis methods. The first method is the Penman-Montieth to calculate the water footprint and water requirements for rice. The second is benefit transfer method to estimate the value of water in rice production. Investigated areas are cities and municipals in East Java, while the study period is 2008 to 2011.The results showed that: (1) the average of water footprint in East Java from 2008 to 2011 was 3.556 m3/ton. This value is affected by climate change, fertilizers, and yields. (2) The average of water requirements for rice in East Java from 2008 to 2011 was 35.913.244.065 m3. This value is greater than the value of water allocation is determined by the government. (3) The estimated value of water for rice production in East Java was Rp 4.500.060 per hectare for one growing season.Keywords: Water Footprint, Water Requirements, Value of Water, AgricultureJEL: Q1, Q25

Assessment of water footprint of vegetable crops

Relevance. Agricultural production is the main consumer of water. Globally, about 70% of fresh water is annually used for agricultural (food and non-food) production. Nearly 40% of the world's food supply comes from irrigation. Globally, the scarcity of irrigation water due to competition between industry and urban consumption threatens food security. Future population growth, income growth and changes in nutrition are expected to increase demand for water. The rate of warming in Russia since the mid-1970s about 2.5 times the global average. The highest rate of temperature increase occurs at high latitudes. The entire territory of Russia is subject to warming, both as a whole for the year and in all seasons. Water Footprint Accounting (WF), proposed by the Water Footprint Network (WFN), has the potential to provide important information for water management, especially in water-stressed regions that rely on irrigation to meet food needs.Methodology. The purpose of this systematic review was to collate and synthesize available data on global water use in vegetable production. Searched online databases covering the areas of environment, social sciences, public health, nutrition and agriculture: Web of Science Core Collection, Scopus, OvidSP MEDLINE, EconLit, OvidSP AGRIS, EBSCO GreenFILE, and OvidSP CAB Abstracts. The search was conducted using predefined search terms that included the concepts of "vegetable crops" and "water footprint".Results. This article provides a brief overview of the vegetable growing water footprint and the sustainability of the blue water footprint. In general, a high green or overall (green + blue) WF may indicate that the vegetable crops are having low yields or inefficient water use. Low green and high blue WF indicate inefficient use of rainwater, which can lead to overexploitation of surface and groundwater. The water footprint can be considered a good economic ergometer, showing the level of water consumption required to obtain a certain vegetable product, whether it brings economic benefits or not, beneficial to society or not.

Water Use Efficiency: A Review of Contextual and Behavioral Factors

Water withdrawals around the world have increased almost twice as fast as the population during the last century. Higher than expected water demand is leading to water scarcity and causing rapid depletion of water tables around the world. One reason behind the higher than expected demand is the inefficient use of water. Inefficient use of water affects the well-being of society, the economic stability of countries, and environmental health. Indeed, water use efficiency (WUE) is one of the pillars of sustainable development goals (SDG 6.4.1). However, progress toward achieving WUE is slow, especially for many developing countries where the degradation of natural resources is critical, economic growth is slow, and there are few strong institutions to coordinate actions. One reason behind inefficient water use is human behavior. A variety of contextual and psychological factors underlie the behavior. The contextual factors include socioeconomic, technical, institutional, and environmental factors and the behavioral factors include factors associated with the perception of risk, attitudes, norms, etc. Yet, few studies consider an integrated view of these factors in shaping water use behavior. This paper consolidates contextual and behavioral factors which influence water use, studies the gaps in our understanding of human water behavior underlying WUE and highlights the need to comprehensive assess and consistently measure such factors and their relationships. Based on the gaps identified, it proposes a conceptual model that connects contextual and behavioral factors and represents potential cause-effect relationships as supported by various environmental behavior approaches and psychological theories. Based on the literature review of water use, and conservation behavior, environmental psychology, and water use models, this model proposes an institutional factor to assess the relationship between institutions and stakeholders, and study contextual factors linked not only for individual water users but also studying these factors for individuals of water supply organizations.