Individual Zones Of Optimal Functioning Model Research Articles

Applying Emotion Theory in Coaching Athletes: Play an Effective Affective Game

This article focuses on the theoretical underpinnings and associated practical applications of the individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOF) model. This model can help coaches simplify the way they teach athletes to use enhancing emotions, elude impairing emotions, sustain an optimal range of emotional functioning, and achieve elevated performance. The article begins by clearly defining the term emotion (within the context of athletic competition) and introducing the fascinating interplay between emotions and athletic performance. It then provides a brief overview of the IZOF model and the framework upon which it is based. The article concludes by offering some preventive and coping strategies coaches can apply to help athletes control their range of emotions, maximize their performance and more successfully address the emotion-performance equation, particularly in youth sport settings. Emotions are part-and-parcel of the performance process, so a firm grasp of emotion theory and the specific practical applications of the IZOF model can help coaches to play an effective affective game and help athletes perform at their very best, especially when it matters the most.

Functional impact of emotions on athletic performance: Comparing the IZOF model and the directional perception approach

The aim of this study was to examine the impact of emotions on athletic performance within the frameworks of the Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning (IZOF) model and the directional perception approach. Intensity, functional impact, and hedonic tone of trait and state anxiety, self-confidence, idiosyncratic emotions, and bodily symptoms were assessed in high-level Italian swimmers and track and field athletes (N = 56). Three standards of performance (poor, average, and good), derived from retrospective self-ratings across one to three competitions (a total of 90 observations), were used as independent variables in the analysis of variance of intensity, intra-individual, and direction scores of anxiety, self-confidence, idiosyncratic emotions, and bodily symptoms. Subsequently, intra-individual scores were categorized as near to or distant from optimal/dysfunctional zones and entered as the independent variable in the analysis of direction scores. The results provided support for the predictions stemming from both the IZOF model and the directional approach, as well as help in interpreting direction of anxiety and other idiosyncratic emotions within the IZOF framework. Athletes tended to perceive emotional levels approximating an individual's optimal zone as facilitative–pleasant, and emotional levels approximating an individual's dysfunctional zone as debilitative–unpleasant.

Consistency of performance-related emotions in elite athletes: Generalizability theory applied to the IZOF model

Objectives To estimate the between- and within-individual consistency of the individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOF)-based emotion profiles describing successful and unsuccessful (sub-standard) performance situations. Method The methodology of generalizability theory (GT) was applied to two multifaceted measurement designs in studies of 12 highly skilled ice-hockey players assessed by the 28-item aggregated sport-specific emotion scale (Study 1) and a single-case involving elite soccer player (Study 2) using self-generated individualized emotion scale, respectively. Results A unique and specific interaction of emotions (the IZOF-“iceberg” or bell-shaped profile) characterized successful performance situations in both Study 1 and 2. This pattern with predominance of optimal pleasant and unpleasant emotions was consistently revealed in between- and within-individual comparisons. In contrast, failure (or sub-standard performance) could not be characterized in terms of one unique and specific profile. However, the findings clearly motivate future research to identify multiple emotion profiles to conceptualize sub-standard performance. The paper offers hypotheses to guide future research. Conclusions Findings provided support for conceptualizing performance situations in terms of relatively stable optimal and dysfunctional patterns of interaction of pleasant and unpleasant emotions. Results also demonstrate that GT is a methodology that can accommodate idiographic as well as nomothetic approaches to estimating within-individual and between-individual consistency patterns of performance-related emotions.

Changing students' attitudes towards risky motor tasks: An application of the IZOF model

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention programme in the physical education setting designed to change attitudes and emotions triggered by potentially risky motor tasks. The individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOF) model was used as a theoretical framework for the study. Italian male and female high school students (N = 84) took part in a 12 lesson intervention and in test – retest sessions. The assessment was conducted using the Motor Activity Anxiety Test to measure the students' approach-avoidance attitudes in the face of physical education tasks purported to engender strong emotional reactions. An idiosyncratic emotional profile was also implemented using a list of pleasant/unpleasant emotional adjectives. Two experimental groups were involved in the learning and performing of several potentially risky, highly emotion-arousing tasks, while two control groups were engaged in low-risk team sports. According to the hypothesis of the study, the programme was effective in decreasing the students' avoidance tendencies towards thrilling tasks and in increasing optimal – pleasant emotions. Our findings also demonstrated the feasibility and utility of applying the IZOF model to the context of physical education.

Emotion self-regulation and athletic performance: An application of the IZOF model

Objectives: To examine the effects of multimodal and individualised self-regulation strategies upon emotions and bodily symptoms of athletes’ psychobiosocial state and performance, within the Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning (IZOF) framework. Design: A multiple baseline single-subject design. Method: Eight male high-level Italian athletes (four goalkeeper roller-skating hockey players and four gymnasts) participated in the study. Procedures involved: (a) recall of idiosyncratic emotions and autonomic symptoms associated with best and worst performances; (b) identification of spontaneous idiosyncratic psychological preparation procedures; (c) monitoring of precompetitive emotions across a competitive season; (d) implementation of an individual multimodal self-regulation programme; and (e) a social validation interview. Results: Preliminary empirical support was provided for the effectiveness of a mental training strategy to optimise precompetitive psychobiosocial states and to improve competition performance. Findings also supported the in/out-of-zone notion applied to perceived emotions and bodily symptoms. Conclusions: Further research is needed to replicate and extend study findings, explore additional concepts incorporated in the recent developments of the IZOF-psychobiosocial model, and develop effective intervention strategies.  2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Emotions, Perceived Qualities, and Performance of Rugby Players

This study was mainly designed to contrast the Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning (IZOF) emotion model and the performance profiling approach in predicting performance of rugby players based on normative, individualized, situational, and relatively stable characteristics. Pregame assessments were accomplished in 33 male Italian rugby players of a top-level team over a whole championship, and individual interviews were conducted at the end of the season. Performance differentiation and discrimination between athletes were reached on relatively stable qualities (i.e., constructs), according to predictions within the performance profile framework. Study findings also revealed that emotions modify widely during the game because of external events (e.g., behaviors of teammates or opponents) or individual behaviors (e.g., individual faults). In conclusion, findings add support to the contention that extending the IZOF model to other physical or performance related components would require situational rather than relatively stable qualities. On the other hand, the concept of zones extended to constructs seems beneficial for practical purposes.

Does the individual zones of optimal functioning model discriminate between successful and less successful athletes? A meta-analysis

According to the individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOF) model, an athlete's performance is successful when his or her pre-competition anxiety is within or near the individually optimal zone. When anxiety falls outside the optimal zone, performance deteriorates. The model also suggests that skilled athletes are aware of, and are able to accurately recall and anticipate, their pre-competition anxiety. A meta-analysis of 19 studies from 1978 to 1997 (146 effect sizes based on 6387 participants) was conducted to examine the validity of the assumptions regarding the in-out of the zone notion and the accuracy of recalls and anticipatory measures of anxiety. The findings provide fairly good empirical support for the IZOF anxiety model, with an overall effect size (d) for the in-out of the zone notion of d = +0.44 (41 effect sizes, n = 3175). In other words,the performance of athletes who were within their individually optimal zones were almost one-half a standard deviation unit better than that of athletes who were outside their zones. Furthermore, both effect sizes (r w ) for accuracy of precompetition anxiety measures, recall (r w = +0.71, 24 effect sizes, n = 369) and anticipatory r w = +0.69, 81 effect sizes, n = 2843), exceeded the 'large effect' suggested for correlations by Cohen. The implications for future research extending the IZOF model to a wider range of positive and negative emotions are discussed.

Applications of the Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning Model for the Multimodal Treatment of Precompetitive Anxiety

Effects of a precompetitive anxiety regulation system, based upon tenets of the individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOF) model, multidimensional anxiety theory, and the specific-effects hypothesis, were tested. In Phase I, case studies (3 elite adolescent tennis players) were used to analyze the IZOF model within a multidimensional state anxiety framework. In Phase II, the effectiveness of a precompetitive anxiety regulation system, based upon IZOF and the specific-effects hypothesis, was tested for enhancing match performance. Essential elements of IZOF theory were supported. In Phase II, inzone/out-of-zone A-state assessment was used to guide athletes’ treatment selections. After training athletes in prematch psychological skills designed to regulate specific cognitive state anxiety, somatic state anxiety, and state selfconfidence dimensions, posttreatment performances yielded higher values (ps < .05) than pretreatment. The need to replicate findings through different sample types, sports, and expertise levels was emphasized. Concerns with intrusion into athletes’ precompetitive routines were discussed.

Anxiety and athletic performance of finnish athletes: Application of the zone of optimal functioning model

The aim of this study was to test five hypotheses based on Hanin's [in Spielberger, C. D. & Diaz-Guerrero, R. (Eds), Cross-cultural anxiety (Vol. 2, pp. 45–64), 1986] Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning (IZOF) model. Eighty Finnish athletes filled out the State Anxiety Inventory two weeks, one week and one hour before the start of a competition. The predicted anxiety level measured two weeks and one week before the competition correlated significantly with the state anxiety level measured one hour before the start. Comparison of athletes preparing for a very important competition showed that those who were inside their optimal individual zone performed significantly better than those who were outside their optimal zone. This result supported the IZOF model. As far as applied sport psychology is concerned, the findings showed that by using the State Anxiety Inventory it is possible to find out the direction needed for regulation of anxiety towards the optimal individual level prior to competition. Practical implications from the findings, which related to the possibility of regulating anxiety to optimal individual levels prior to and during competitions, are discussed.

Performance Affect in Junior Ice Hockey Players: An Application of the Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning Model

Individual patterns of positive–negative affect (PNA) were studied in 46 ice hockey players, ages 15–17 years. Recall idiographic scaling following the methodology of the individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOF) model was used to identify subjective emotional experiences related to each player’s successful and unsuccessful game performance. Individual zones for each emotion were then estimated using Borg’s Category Ratio (CR-10) scale. Different positive and negative emotions were functionally facilitating (20.5%), debilitating (25.3%), or both (54.2%). Significant differences were revealed only at intra- and interindividual but not at the group level. Optimal and nonoptimal zones for different emotions in different players were also individual. The data support and extend Hanin’s IZOF model to the content and intensity of PNA in ice hockey. Implications for the development of sports-specific scales, idiographic assessments, and application of the IZOF model in team sports are suggested.

Performance Affect in Soccer Players: An Application of the IZOF Model

Individual patterns of positive-negative affect (PNA) were studied in 25 Olympic level soccer players (age 17-21). Recall idiographic scaling following the methodology of the individual Zones of Optimal Functioning (IZOF) model was used to identify PNA items related to each player's effective and ineffective game performance. Individual zones for each item were then estimated on the Borg's Category Ratio (CR-10) scale. Optimal and non-optimal PNA patterns were revealed in the selection of idiosyncratic items, their intensity ranges and functions. All PNA items were functionally either facilitating (23.1%), debilitating (42.3%), or both (34.6%). Significant differences in PNA content and intensity (zones) were revealed only at intra- and inter-individual but not at the group level. Pre-game negative ineffective affect in successful players anticipated two days before the important tournament deviated more from non-optimal zones than in less successful players. The data support the findings obtained in ice-hockey and extend Hanin's IZOF model to performance PNA in soccer. Implications for idiographic assessments and application of the IZOF model in team sports are suggested.