Individual Schemas Research Articles

“I Don’t Even Talk About It”: Applying Ray’s Theory of Racialized Organizations to Class Stratification in Academia

ABSTRACT In this paper, we develop a working theory examining how the organizational apparatuses of colleges and universities, as well as larger trends in higher education, contribute to unequal outcomes for faculty from working-class backgrounds and their upper- and middle-class counterparts. Based on 30 interviews with a nationwide sample of academic faculty and graduate students in sociology, we adapt an analytical approach introduced by Victor Ray, a theory of racialized organizations, to identify several common mechanisms in higher education that hinder working-class faculty members’ ability to form professional relationships and gain prestige at post-secondary institutions, disrupt efforts to diversify faculty bodies socioeconomically, and preserve class-based inequalities by masking the saliency of social class in faculty settings. Adapting Ray’s analysis, we divide these organizational features of higher education into three categories—superstructure (collective ideologies), structure (policies and norms), and substructure (individual schemas)—illustrating how these features uphold and reinforce one another.

A person-centered, transdiagnostic schema and mode profile approach to predict outcome in time-limited schema group therapy

Objective This study employs a person-centered transdiagnostic approach to examine how schema and mode profiles predict symptom severity reduction in schema group therapy for patients with personality disorders and enduring clinical syndromes. Method We analyzed symptom reduction in 248 patients across three formats of manualized, time-limited schema group therapy. Latent profile analysis and mixed multilevel modeling were used to determine the extent to which schema/mode classes predict symptom reduction, and whether the inclusion of individual schemas and modes enhances these predictions. Results No significant differences in treatment outcomes were found across the group modalities. A three latent profile solution for schemas and modes showed external validity with clinical variables and demonstrated that declines in symptom severity varied by schema and mode class, even after adjusting for baseline symptom severity. Adding the Vulnerability to Harm schema and Vulnerable Child mode to the model increased the explained variance. Conclusion Patients with more severe personality problems show more substantial symptom reduction. Both schema and mode profiles significantly contribute to predicting post-treatment symptom levels. Understanding these profiles may help therapists tailor interventions more effectively, consistent with Young’s theoretical model. Trial registration: ISRCTN.org identifier: ISRCTN17262253.

Multiple psychotherapeutic approaches and perspectives on eco-anxiety.

In highly diverse psychotherapy practices, psychotherapists with their individual schemas and personalities treat patients who are just as individual, each with his/her own partially dysfunctional schema, personality, worldview, and life situation. Intuition gained through experience is often applied, and a wide range of perspectives, techniques, and treatment options appropriate to the specific situation and psychotherapist-patient relationship are required for successful treatment of eco-anxiety manifestations. Several examples will be used to present the approaches of different psychotherapeutic approaches to eco-anxiety such as analytical psychology, logotherapy and existential analysis, psychodrama, and Morita-therapy. The treatment-possibilities-expanding psychotherapy science is presented, which helps psychotherapists to look beyond their original learned approach and learn about new perspectives and treatment methods in a methodologically sound way, which they already do intuitively.

Childhood Memories in Eating Disorders: An Explorative Study Using Diagnostic Imagery.

Together with socio-cultural components, the family environment and early parent–child interactions play a role in the development of eating disorders. The aim of this study was to explore the nature of early parent–daughter relationships in a sample of 49 female inpatients with an eating disorder. To acquire a detailed image description of the childhood experiences of the patient, we used diagnostic imagery, a schema therapy-derived experiential technique. This procedure allows exploring specific contents within the childhood memory (i.e., emotions and unmet core needs), bypassing rational control, commonly active during direct verbal questioning. Additionally, patients completed self-report measures to assess for eating disorder severity, general psychopathology, and individual and parental schemas pervasiveness. Finally, we explored possible differences in the diagnostic imagery content and self-report measures in two subgroups of patients with anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. The results showed that the most frequently reported unmet needs within the childhood memories of patients were those of safety/protection, care/nurturance, and emotional expression, referred specifically to the maternal figure. Overall, mothers were described as more abandoning, but at the same time particularly enmeshed in the relationship with their daughters. Conversely, patients perceived their fathers as more emotionally inhibited and neglecting. Imagery-based techniques might represent a powerful tool to explore the nature of early life experiences in eating disorders, allowing a more detailed case conceptualization and addressing intervention on early-life vulnerability aspects in disorder treatment.

Psihometrijska obilježja Youngova upitnika shema (YSQ-S3)

Cilj je ovoga istraživanja bio ispitati neke psihometrijske karakteristike hrvatske verzije Youngova upitnika shema. Istraživanje je provedeno na kliničkome uzorku od 269 pacijenata liječenih od anksioznih poremećaja i poremećaja raspoloženja (Mdobi = 46.8, SDdobi = 10.5). Provedena je metoda glavnih komponenata uz ortogonalnu (Varimax) rotaciju. Rezultati provjere konstruktne valjanosti pokazali su da hrvatska verzija Youngova upitnika shema u većoj mjeri potvrđuje originalnu faktorsku strukturu (potvrđeno je 16 od 18 faktora kojima je objašnjeno 56.32 % ukupne varijance toga konstrukta). Cronbachov alfa koeficijent za cijeli upitnik iznosi .96, dok se vrijednosti koeficijenta pouzdanosti za pojedine sheme kreću u rasponu .71 do .93, uz iznimku sheme samokažnjavanje čija je pouzdanost tipa unutarnje konzistencije .49. Kako bismo provjerili konvergentnu valjanost upitnika, korišteni su Beckov inventar depresije – II (Beck i sur., 2011) i Ljestvica anksioznosti kao stanja i osobine ličnosti (Spielberger, 2000). Korelacije između rezultata na Youngovu upitniku shema i Beckovu inventaru depresije – II kretale su se između .12 i .62, a korelacije između rezultata na Youngovu upitniku shema i Ljestvici anksioznosti kao stanja i osobine ličnosti bile su između .23 i .50. Rezultati su pokazali da je hrvatska verzija Youngova upitnika shema mjerni instrument primjerene konstruktne i konvergentne valjanosti te zadovoljavajuće pouzdanosti tipa unutarnje konzistencije koji se može koristiti za procjenu ranih neprilagođenih shema na kliničkoj populaciji osoba koje se liječe od anksioznih i depresivnih poremećaja.

Narrative Indicators of Adolescents’ Maladaptive Cognitive Schemas

Introduction. The article presents the results of a study of adolescents` personal narratives. The general aim of the study was to identify narrative indicators of adolescents’ maladaptive cognitive schemas. This aim was achieved by virtue of realization of such tasks as: to identify the specific text categories (indicators) that indicate the maladaptive schemas and to determine the predictive power of each category (indicator). In the course of theoretical analysis, there were systematized the approaches to the understanding of personal narratives and “self-texts”. There also was generalized the concept of maladaptive cognitive schemas, and were defined textual categories which can be reflected in the narratives of people who have certain maladaptive schemas.
 Methods. The methods of the empirical study were Dusseldorf Illustrated Schema Questionnaire for Children and the content-analysis of personal narratives. Statistical processing of the obtained data and determination of the predictive power of each narrative category were performed with the help of the method of recursive division trees.
 Results. As a result of the empirical study was it was found that certain categories in the personal narratives of adolescents allow us to predict the manifestation of individual maladaptive schemas. There were identified narrative indicators, able to predict fourteen of the eighteen schemas. It was determined that the knowledge of narrative indicators of maladaptive cognitive schemas can be used within the psychological counseling and therapy at the stage of gathering primary information, as well as in the context of purposeful psychological impact.
 Conclusions. There were described the topical prospects for further scientific development of the problem, which were to expand the categorical structure of content analysis, which would allow to find indicators of four schemas that remain unclear, as well as to widen the age range of respondents and to test the hypothesis about the existence of a link between the personal narratives of adults and their maladaptive schemas. There was made an assumption that modification of a personal narrative can accelerate therapeutic work aimed at eliminating the negative impact of maladaptive schemas on a person's life.

Intergenerational Transfer of Early Maladaptive Schemas in Mother–Daughter Dyads, and the Role of Parenting

Expanding limited research on the origins of early maladaptive schemas, this study investigated relations between parental (mother) schemas and parenting styles with child (adult daughter) schemas using cross-sectional methodology. One hundred women (aged 18–88) participated in the study and 39 matched mother–daughter dyads were analysed. The Young Schema Questionnaire, Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale, Parental Bonding Instrument and Parental Authority Questionnaire were used to assess individual schemas, parenting styles from the daughters’ perspective, and depression as a mood-state control variable. Mother schemas predicted a range of daughter schemas. There was also evidence of direct transference (‘selective internalisation’) of some schemas between mothers and daughters. Daughter schemas were associated with parenting styles. In particular, high authoritative parenting predicted lower levels of daughter schemas and high overprotective parenting predicted higher levels of daughter schemas. There was no firm evidence that authoritative parenting mediated the relationship between mother and daughter schemas in this domain. The major limitations of this study are the cross-sectional design and relatively small sample. In conclusion, mother maladaptive schemas and style of parenting predict daughter schemas. The results provide support for interpersonal, intergenerational influences on schema development. In highlighting the possible intergenerational sources of maladaptive core beliefs, this research may open new avenues of therapist–client dialogue.

A Classification Framework for Exploring Technology-Enabled Practice–FrameTEP

This article theorizes the construction of a classification framework to explore teachers’ beliefs and pedagogical practices for the use of digital technologies in the classroom. There are currently many individual schemas and models that represent both developmental and divergent concepts associated with technology-enabled practice. This article draws from a depth of literature in this field to synthesize a classification framework used as an analytic tool to interpret technology-enabled practice. The framework was drawn from literature covering teachers’ epistemic beliefs, pedagogical beliefs, pedagogical approaches, technological competency, and perceived levels of learning. It emerged as a result of the need to analysis case study data from a large-scale research project into the effective use of digital games in the classroom: Serious Play: Digital Games, Learning and Literacy for Twenty First Century Schooling. Yin suggests the use of a uniform framework to enable cross-case synthesis. The framework provides an analytical tool to help interpret why and how teachers are using, in this case, digital games in their classrooms. It also provides a significant contribution to the variances in technology-enabled practice along the traditional-constructivist continuum as well as to the relationship in how teacher beliefs direct pedagogical practice and choice of technologies used for learning.

A Cognitive Perspective for Understanding and Training Assertiveness

Abstract. Assertiveness has for long been considered an optimal way of expressing oneself while at the same time maintaining and/or enhancing social rewards, leading to the conclusion that it should be promoted as an intra and interpersonal protective factor. Yet, few researchers have tried to provide a comprehensive model on assertiveness that may better sustain why and how to train it. We propose a cognitive model for explaining how assertiveness comes to be enacted and maintained, considering the activation of previous individual schemas, how they influence the processing of social cues, which in turn influence the interactive activation of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral assertive products. The assertive behavior in turn prompts reactions from the interaction partner. This interpersonal exchange will serve to confirm previous schemas and make them more accessible when facing future social events. We further review previous findings on several assumptions involved in this model and propose how these findings can sustain cognitive-behavioral approaches to assertive training, building on the premises that the intrapersonal psychological functioning is manifested in interpersonal observed behaviors. Subsequently, new directions for the study and training of assertiveness based on a social information-processing framework are discussed, also considering the current social challenges and contexts that we, as human beings, must face.

Unifying speech and language in a developmentally sensitive model of production

Speaking is an intentional activity. It is also a complex motor skill; one that exhibits protracted development and the fully automatic character of an overlearned behavior. Together these observations suggest an analogy with skilled behavior in the non-language domain. This analogy is used here to argue for a model of production that is grounded in the activity of speaking and structured during language acquisition. The focus is on the plan that controls the execution of fluent speech; specifically, on the units that are activated during the production of an intonational phrase. These units are schemas: temporally structured sequences of remembered actions and their sensory outcomes. Schemas are activated and inhibited via associated goals, which are linked to specific meanings. Schemas may fuse together over developmental time with repeated use to form larger units, thereby affecting the relative timing of sequential action in participating schemas. In this way, the hierarchical structure of the speech plan and ensuing rhythm patterns of speech are a product of development. Individual schemas may also become differentiated during development, but only if the subsequences are associated with meaning. The necessary association of action and meaning gives rise to assumptions about the primacy of certain linguistic forms in the production process. Overall, schema representations connect usage-based theories of language to the action of speaking.

Competitive and Leadership Structure Schemas and Team Level Consequences

Team leadership schemas are naive theories or belief sets that individuals hold about how leadership should be enacted within teams. We examine two such schema: leadership structure schema – the degree to which a team should have shared or hierarchical leadership – and leadership competitiveness schema – the degree to which members believe that leadership emergence is a competitive process. In a sample of 161 student project teams, we examined the impact of these two schemas on important team processes and outcomes. Our findings suggest that individual leadership schemas, when aggregated to the team level, shape team leadership structure, conflict, satisfaction and performance.

Perceived Harm of Tobacco Products and Individual Schemas of a Smoker in Relation to Change in Tobacco Product Use Over One Year Among Young Adults

Introduction: Given increases in nondaily smoking and alternative tobacco use among young adults, we examined the nature of change of various tobacco product use among college students over a year and predictors of use at one-year follow-up. Methods: An online survey was administered to students at six Southeast colleges and universities (N = 4,840; response rate = 20.1%) in Fall 2010, with attempts to follow up in Fall 2011 with a random subsample of 2,000 participants (N = 718; response rate = 35.9%). Data were analyzed from 698 participants with complete data regarding tobacco, marijuana, and alcohol use over a one-year period, perceived harm of tobacco use, and schemas of a “smoker” (as per the Classifying a Smoker Scale). Results: Baseline predictors of current smoking at follow-up included being White (p = .001), frequency of smoking (p < .001), alternative tobacco use (p < .001), and perceived harm of smoking (p = .02); marginally significant predictors included marijuana use (p = .06) and lower scores on the Classifying a Smoker Scale (p = .07). Baseline predictors of current smoking at follow-up among baseline nondaily smokers included more frequent smoking (p = .008); lower Classifying a Smoker Scale score was a marginally significant predictor (p = .06). Baseline predictors of alternative tobacco use at follow-up included being male (p = .007), frequency of smoking (p = .04), alternative tobacco use (p < .001), and frequency of alcohol use (p = .003); marginally significant predictors included marijuana use (p = .07) and lower perceived harm of smokeless tobacco (p = .06) and cigar products (p = .08). Conclusions: Tobacco control campaigns and interventions might target schemas of a smoker and perceived risks of using various tobacco products, even at low levels.

Mode deactivation therapy: A look at two recent studies.

OVER THE YEARS INCREASED need has developed for effective interventions in residential settings for conduct disordered and delinquent youth. In particular the adolescent population has been difficult and suffering high amounts of recidivism. One promising treatment to develop has been Mode Deactivation therapy. Jack Apsche originally formulated mode Deactivation Therapy (MDT) in response to the lack of effective therapies offered in residential treatment centers. Interventions are primarily verbal and involved validating the client's experiences, clarifying core beliefs and changing behavioral responses that are based on fear and improper attempts to cope. In developing the treatment, Apsche drew on recent work in cognitive behavior therapy in particular, Becks concept of modes and methods to deactivate triggered responses (Apsche & DiMeo, 2010). His treatment is similar to many of the current movements in clinical behavior analysis in that it is contextual in nature with a focus on the therapeutic relationship during the interaction to trigger and shape response, while attempting to balance ideas of both acceptance and change around complex behavioral problems involving trauma, psychopathology, beliefs, and personality factors (Apsche, 2010). A recent meta-analysis has shown mode deactivation therapy to be effective in the treatment of residential children with multiple behavioral and psychiatric difficulties (Apsche, Bass, & DiMeo, 2010) In addition, this meta-analysis found the effect size of the treatment to be greater than that of traditional cognitive therapies, dialectical behavior therapy and social skills training. Finally, some support was offered that externalizing problems such as aggression emerge from internalizing problems such as anxiety. Mode Deactivation theory has received a flurry of recent interest. This is evidenced by multiple journal articles written documenting the ineffectiveness of treatment as usual and the effectiveness of MDT (Apsche & Ward, 2002; Apsche, Bass, Murphy 2004; Apsche, Bass, Civ 2005) Thoder and Cautilli, 2011 succinctly described MDT: Mode deactivation therapy (MDT) is offshoot of CBT that examines aspects of personality that lead to criminality and delinquency and, ultimately, remediate problematic schemas. MDT is based on the work of Aaron Beck, M.D. Beck (1996) suggests that the model of individual schemas do not adequately address a number of psychological problems. Incorporating this premise, MDT addresses a more global methodology (Apsche & Ward, 2002; Beck, 1996). The concept of modes is defined as a network of cognitive, affective, motivational, and behavioral components that integrate sections of a personality (Beck, 1996). Modes consist of beliefs that contain the specific memories, the system on solving specific problems, and the experiences that produce memories, images, and language that form perspectives (Apsche & Ward, 2002). (p.42). In 2006 and in 2011 these writers evaluated the effectiveness of MDT. These evaluations were independent of each other. The second occurred 5 years after the first and 10 years after the introduction of the MDT model. The current status of the literature (insert bass, etc here) evidences a robust therapeutic model which provides a model of care for adolescents who have extensive abuse histories, have been in multiple placements and generally are avoided by providers due to their extreme behavior. Underwood, Baggett-Talbott, Mosholder, and Von Dresner (2008) found that many of the therapies utilized in residential treatment centers is normed on those with less intense problems and thus the difficulty in treating those in residential care. MDT provides an alternative for this shortcoming. MDT has provided sound if not superior results to Cognitive Behavior Therapy alone or Treatment as Usual (supportive therapy, crisis management only, or medication management alone). …

Integrating XML Data Into Multiple Rolap Data Warehouse Schemas

Data Warehouse is one of the most common ways for analyzing large data for decision based system. These data are often sourced from online transactional system. The transactional data are represented in different formats. XML is one of the worldwide standards to represent data in web based system. Numbers of organizations use XML for e-commerce and internet based applications. Integration of XML and data warehouse for the innovation of business logic and to enhance decision making has therefore emerged as a demanding area of research interest. This paper focuses on integrating XML data based on multiple related XML schemas, to an equivalent data warehouse schemas based on relational online analytical processing (ROLAP). This work bears a high relevance towards standardizing of the ETL phase (Extraction, Transformation, and Loading) of the OLAP projects. The novelty of the work is that more than one data warehouse schemas could be identified from a single related XML schema and each of them could be categorized as star schema or snowflake schema. Moreover if the individual schemas are found to be related according to the analysis, fact constellation could be identified. A new data structure, Schema Graph has been proposed in the process.

The Development and Validation of a Scale Assessing Individual Schemas Used in Classifying a Smoker: Implications for Research and Practice

Half of college students who have smoked in the past month do not consider themselves smokers. Understanding one's schema of smokers is important, as it might relate to smoking behavior. Thus, we aimed to develop a scale assessing how young adults classify smokers and establish reliability and validity of the scale. Of 24,055 students at six Southeast colleges recruited to complete an online survey, 4,840 (20.1%) responded, with complete smoking and scale development data from 3,863. The Classifying a Smoker Scale consisted of 10 items derived from prior research. Factor analysis extracted a single factor accounting for 40.00% of score variance (eigenvalue = 5.52). Higher scores (range 10-70) indicate stricter criteria in classifying a smoker. The scale yielded a Cronbach's alpha of .91. Current smoking (past 30-day) prevalence was 22.8%. Higher Classifying a Smoker Scale scores (p = .001) were significant predictors of current smoking, controlling for sociodemographics. Higher scores were related to being nondaily versus daily smokers (p = .009), readiness to quit in the next month (p = .04), greater perceived smoking prevalence (p = .007), not identifying as smokers (p < .001), less perceived harm of smoking (p < .001), greater concern about smoking health risks (p = .01), and less favorable attitudes toward smoking restrictions (p < .001). Among current smokers, higher scores were related to greater smoking frequency (p = .02), not identifying as smokers (p < .001), and less perceived harm of smoking (p < .001), controlling for sociodemographics. This scale, demonstrating good psychometric properties, highlights potential intervention targets for prevention and cessation, as it relates to smoking, risk perception, and interest in quitting.

Reasoning, modelling and knowledge codification in solving well-structured mathematics problems

In problem-based learning, the instructional process begins with the introduction of the problem statement, one that is usually real-world-oriented. Students in groups are encouraged to tackle and solve the problem, in the process of which they build up their own individual conceptual knowledge schemas in relation to the given problems. In developing PBL-centred curriculum, problems selected as the cognitive stimulus in initiating knowledge construction could be either well or ill-structured problem representations. The study described in this paper adopted a case study approach to investigate the cognitive reasoning and analytical strategies students employed in conceptualising and deconstructing story and arithmetic well-structured problems. It is hoped that the findings of this study will shed more light on the heuristic ways in which students approach well-structured problem solving and inform the educational design of effective problem solving environments.

Individual Change Schemas, Core Discussion Network, and Participation in Change: an Exploratory Study of Macau Casino Employees

Individuals'participation in organizational change is crucial to the success of a change initiative. We propose that such participation is based on three aspects of individual change schemas: change salience, change valence, and change inference. We further propose that the core discussion network of individuals may moderate the relationships between their change schemas and their participation in change. Using a sample of employees from a major casino operation in Macau, which suddenly faced intense competition after enjoying a 40-year monopoly, this study empirically examines how individuals' change schemas, participation in change, and core discussion network are related. The results support most of the hypotheses. Theoretical and managerial implications are discussed.

Schematic mismatch in the therapeutic relationship: A social-cognitive model

Cognitive-behavioural therapists recognise the therapeutic relationship as an important component of the process of change. The therapeutic relationship is a co-construction shaped via interactional sequences that occur when the therapist and patient are reacting moment-to-moment with each other. Robert Leahy reviews common dimensions of confusion, disappointment, conflict and resistance in the therapeutic relationship that emerge from these sequences. Of specific focus are the personal schemas and emotional schemas that both patient and therapist bring to the relationship, and how these individual schemas can create mismatches and thus disrupt interactions that can interfere with treatment. Seven common patterns of resistance that interfere with progress are identified, as well as interventions that may be useful in overcoming these potential roadblocks in treatment.

The Defining Element–A Discussion of the Creator Element Within Metadata Schemas

SUMMARY The attribution of authorship in the context of electronic works is complex. Defining the semantic content of the element that denotes authorship or responsibility for an electronic resource must adhere to the prescribed definition of the elements within metadata standards. The Creator element is a kind of catchall element for the designation of responsibility for a resource's content. The Creator element or its equivalent in individual metadata schemas is examined: (1) to understand how the element is treated and functions within each specified schema, and (2) to eventually decipher similarities and differences of the Creator element across different schemas, which shall indicate defining attributes of the element. Standardization of the definitions within various element sets is suggested. In the case of the Creator element, attribution should reside with the entity primarily responsible for the resource.

Vulnerability schemas of individuals in couples relationships: a cognitive perspective

The professional literature has recently given attention to addressing individual schemas in couples’ relationships, with particular emphasis on the fact that individual vulnerability has a significant impact on couples’ relationships. This article addresses how this vulnerability can be restructured during the course of couples’ therapy. Case vignettes are used to illustrate how the model can be applied. Some of the implications of this model are considered in the discussion section.