Individual Body Parts Research Articles

Video-based marker-free tracking and multi-scale analysis of mouse locomotor activity and behavioral aspects in an open field arena: A perspective approach to the quantification of complex gait disturbances associated with Alzheimer's disease.

Complex gait disturbances represent one of the prominent manifestations of various neurophysiological conditions, including widespread neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Therefore, instrumental measurement techniques and automatic computerized analysis appears essential for the differential diagnostics, as well as for the assessment of treatment effectiveness from experimental animal models to clinical settings. Here we present a marker-free instrumental approach to the analysis of gait disturbances in animal models. Our approach is based on the analysis of video recordings obtained with a camera placed underneath an open field arena with transparent floor using the DeeperCut algorithm capable of online tracking of individual animal body parts, such as the snout, the paws and the tail. The extracted trajectories of animal body parts are next analyzed using an original computerized methodology that relies upon a generalized scalable model based on fractional Brownian motion with parameters identified by detrended partial cross-correlation analysis. We have shown that in a mouse model representative movement patterns are characterized by two asymptotic regimes characterized by integrated 1/f noise at small scales and nearly random displacements at large scales separated by a single crossover. More detailed analysis of gait disturbances revealed that the detrended cross-correlations between the movements of the snout, paws and tail relative to the animal body midpoint exhibit statistically significant discrepancies in the Alzheimer's disease mouse model compared to the control group at scales around the location of the crossover. We expect that the proposed approach, due to its universality, robustness and clear physical interpretation, is a promising direction for the design of applied analysis tools for the diagnostics of various gait disturbances and behavioral aspects in animal models. We further believe that the suggested mathematical models could be relevant as a complementary tool in clinical diagnostics of various neurophysiological conditions associated with movement disorders.

A novel approach for yoga pose estimation based on in-depth analysis of human body joint detection accuracy.

Virtual motion and pose from images and video can be estimated by detecting body joints and their interconnection. The human body has diverse and complicated poses in yoga, making its classification challenging. This study estimates yoga poses from the images using a neural network. Five different yoga poses, viz. downdog, tree, plank, warrior2, and goddess in the form of RGB images are used as the target inputs. The BlazePose model was used to localize the body joints of the yoga poses. It detected a maximum of 33 body joints, referred to as keypoints, covering almost all the body parts. Keypoints achieved from the model are considered as predicted joint locations. True keypoints, as the ground truth body joint for individual yoga poses, are identified manually using the open source image annotation tool named Makesense AI. A detailed analysis of the body joint detection accuracy is proposed in the form of percentage of corrected keypoints (PCK) and percentage of detected joints (PDJ) for individual body parts and individual body joints, respectively. An algorithm is designed to measure PCK and PDJ in which the distance between the predicted joint location and true joint location is calculated. The experiment evaluation suggests that the adopted model obtained 93.9% PCK for the goddess pose. The maximum PCK achieved for the goddess pose, i.e., 93.9%, PDJ evaluation was carried out in the staggering mode where maximum PDJ is obtained as 90% to 100% for almost all the body joints.

A Joint Global–Local Network for Human Pose Estimation With Millimeter Wave Radar

This article proposes a two-branch learning model, namely, the joint global–local network, for human pose estimation (HPE) using millimeter wave radar. The aim of this work is to remediate the ill-posed problems in HPE arising from using the destructive observations with superimposed reflection signals. In the developed two-branch learning model, the global branch takes use of the superimposed signals from the whole human body to reconstruct the coarse pose estimation from a global perspective, and the local branch is responsible for fining the pose estimations with the decomposed signals from individual body parts in a complementary way. In doing this, two branch learning processes will be coordinated with the followed attention-based fusion module in terms of the local and global consistency. It is remarkable that the learning driven by the decomposed signals is motivated by exploiting the spatial-temporal evolution patterns of individual body parts for inferring the corresponding movements, which plays a crucial yet complementary role in the collaboration with the learning driven by the superimposed signals. With the two-branch learning architecture, the proposed method is advantageous in incorporating the local motion constraints from individual body parts into the coarse global estimation from the whole human body, which contributes to reconstructing plausible yet accurate pose estimations with the local and global kinematic consistency. Extensive experiments are presented to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method.

Self-assessment and self-perception of the body in 18-year-old girls.

Studies focusing on self-perception of one's body usually cover subjects with eating disorders. There is a lack of similar studies. Conducting survey research on self-assessment and self-perception of one's own body in girls. A survey was conducted in 1047 female students (average age: 18 years ±0.25) focusing on self-assessment and self-perception of their body mass, body parts, and eating habits. The study subjects were divided into groups of normal weight, obese, and underweight according to their BMI and BMI-SDS. There were twice as many girls dissatisfied with their body weight in the underweight group and 10 times as many in the obese group. 8% of girls with normal body weight perceived their body as overweight. 70% of subjects with a normal body weight and ca. 25% of obese thought they were obese in the area of the abdomen, hips, buttocks, and thighs. Fear of gaining weight was characteristic most often for girls with abnormal body weight who confessed to eating disorders. 1. Most 18-year-old girls do not demonstrate any symptoms of distorted body self-perception; a vast majority of girls with normal body weight exaggerate the shapes of body parts, which causes them to undertake measures aiming to lose weight. Only a quarter of obese subjects perceive their individual body parts as obese, which might result in their lack of motivation to lose weight. 2. It is necessary to introduce healthy lifestyle educators in schools to prevent ED and obesity in adolescents.

ErgoExplorer: Interactive Ergonomic Risk Assessment from Video Collections.

Ergonomic risk assessment is now, due to an increased awareness, carried out more often than in the past. The conventional risk assessment evaluation, based on expert-assisted observation of the workplaces and manually filling in score tables, is still predominant. Data analysis is usually done with a focus on critical moments, although without the support of contextual information and changes over time. In this paper we introduce ErgoExplorer, a system for the interactive visual analysis of risk assessment data. In contrast to the current practice, we focus on data that span across multiple actions and multiple workers while keeping all contextual information. Data is automatically extracted from video streams. Based on carefully investigated analysis tasks, we introduce new views and their corresponding interactions. These views also incorporate domain-specific score tables to guarantee an easy adoption by domain experts. All views are integrated into ErgoExplorer, which relies on coordinated multiple views to facilitate analysis through interaction. ErgoExplorer makes it possible for the first time to examine complex relationships between risk assessments of individual body parts over long sessions that span multiple operations. The newly introduced approach supports analysis and exploration at several levels of detail, ranging from a general overview, down to inspecting individual frames in the video stream, if necessary. We illustrate the usefulness of the newly proposed approach applying it to several datasets.

Comparison of Volunteers' Head Displacement with Computer Simulation-Crash Test with Low Speed of 20 km/h.

Recently, the automotive industry has used simulation programs much more often than experimental research. Computer simulations are more and more often used due to the repeatability of simulation conditions and the possibility of making modifications in simulation objects. Experimental and simulation studies carried out are aimed at developing a model of a simulation dummy adapted to both frontal and rear crash tests, taking into account changes in the moment of resistance in individual joints. The main purpose of the article is to reproduce a real crash test at a low speed of 20 km/h in a simulation program. For this purpose, a series of experimental crash tests with the participation of volunteers was carried out, and then a crash test with a dummy was simulated in the MSC ADAMS program. The experimental studies involved 100 volunteers who were divided into three percentile groups (C5, C50, C95). With the help of force sensors and a high-speed camera, crash tests of volunteers were recorded. The collected data from the force sensors made it possible to map the force in the seat belts. For low-speed crash tests, the displacement and acceleration of individual body parts of the dummy and volunteers can be measured using vision systems. The article identified head displacements of volunteers in the TEMA program based on a video analysis of a crash test film with a frequency of up to 2500 frames per second. The displacement of the simulation dummy's head in the MSC ADAMS program in the considered crash time interval from 0.0 to 0.4 s for all three percentile groups coincided with the head displacement of the volunteers during the experimental crash test.

Fish-breeding and biological characteristics of pure species and hybrids of Siberian sturgeon and Russian sturgeon in commercial breeding in an industrial fishery

The study compares commercial breeding of Siberian sturgeon, Russian sturgeon, and their hybrids in a flow-through industrial farm. The research was carried out at the Konakovo Division of the Branch for Freshwater Fisheries of the Federal State Budget Scientific Institution “Russian Federal Research Institute of Fisheries and Oceanography” (VNIIPRKH) from 2019 to 2021. Throughout the breeding period, the average water temperature was 16.3 °C, and the thermal constant was 16,195 degree days. The comparison of fish-breeding and biological characteristics of pure species and hybrids of Siberian sturgeon and Russian sturgeon under similar conditions revealed that Siberian sturgeon × Russian sturgeon (SS×RS) and Russian sturgeon × Siberian sturgeon (RS×SS) hybrids had the highest body weight, while Russian sturgeon (RS) and Siberian sturgeon (SS) had the lowest body weight. The average weight gain coefficient in experimental groups of sturgeons varied insignificantly during different breeding periods and was nearly similar at the end of breeding. The paper presents the results of nutritional value evaluation and determination of the weight ratio of individual body parts in the studied fish species. The study of gametogenesis in Siberian sturgeon and Russian sturgeon pure species and hybrids provides insight into the natural development of germ cells depending on water temperature. The onset of puberty in pure species and heir hybrids is noted at the age of three years (1024 days), and spermatogenesis takes place in cysts of males. Gonad maturity is characterized as stage IV–VI, with overmature sperm resorption. The analysis revealed similarity in germ cell development, confirming the seasonal cycle in sturgeon spermatogenesis. Female Siberian sturgeons and SS×RS hybrid have normal germ cell development, whereas Russian sturgeons and RS×SS hybrid have delayed gonad development.

Bio-Inspired Model-Based Design and Control of Bipedal Robot

The article aims to describe stages of development of a mobile, anthropomorphic robot. The individual phases of the bio-inspired model-based design of a two-legged robot are described, from the analysis of human walking patterns, through the creation of a simulation model and a control system to the creation and testing the physical model of such a robot. The bio-inspired design is based on an analysis of the movements of the individual parts of a lower human body during walking locomotion. Based on this analysis, the chosen motion model is described as a combination of passive and dynamic walking with a controlled, linear inverted pendulum model. When creating the simulation model, an open kinematic chain consisting of a base (the frame) and two effectors (the legs) is used. The simulation of the virtual model is realized using the software tool Matlab with its toolboxes Simulink and Simscape, and the results confirm the correctness of the design. The feasibility of the design is confirmed by creation of a physical robot skeleton using 3D printing and by a commissioning of the control system based on Atmel ATmega2560 and Raspberry Pi Zero W microcontrollers.

3D escape: an alternative paradigm for spatial orientation studies in insects

Arthropods and in particular insects show a great variety of different exoskeletal sensors. For most arthropods, spatial orientation and gravity perception is not fully understood. In particular, the interaction of the different sensors is still a subject of ongoing research. A disadvantage of most of the experimental methods used to date to study the spatial orientation of arthropods in behavioral experiments is that the body or individual body parts are fixed partly in a non-natural manner. Therefore, often only the movement of individual body segments can be used to evaluate the experiments. We here present a novel experimental method to easily study 3D-escape movements in insects and analyze whole-body reaction. The animals are placed in a transparent container, filled with a lightweight substrate and rotating around two axes. To verify our setup, house crickets (Acheta domesticus) with selectively manipulated gravity-perceiving structures were analyzed. The spatial orientation behavior was quantified by measuring the time individuals took to escape toward the surface and the angular deviation toward the gravitational vector. These experiments confirm earlier results and therefore validated our experimental setup. Our new approach thus allows to investigate several comprehensive questions regarding the spatial orientation of insects and other animals.

Evaluation Method for Shape Similarities between Archaeological Unorganized Point Cloud

Researchers assume that the bodies of several Tara statues may have been molded from the same template. Therefore, researchers are eager to study the shape similarities between the Tara statues. Motivated by the archaeologist's requirements, this study presents an efficient approach to evaluate shape similarities between point clouds of two different Tara statues right-arm models. The evaluation approach consists of two main stages. The first is the reconstruction of individual body parts without decoration using a B-spline surface approximation technique. In previous reconstruction process, the surrounding surface selection parameter was manually specified. If the manually applied parameter is inadequate, it reduces the accuracy of the surface approximation and hole-filling, resulting in reduced accuracy of the evaluation result. Therefore, in this study, the surrounding surface selection parameter is automatically determined based on the Golden-section-search algorithm. The second stage evaluates the shape similarities between two different point clouds. The evaluation method considers a simple point-to-surface distance metric method with overlapping-surface detection and when compared with generic point-to-point distance metric method, the evaluation results proved that the proposed methodology was reliable and effective for this application. The approximation accuracy affects the evaluation result when the reconstruction method fills the gap by adding new points through the approximated surface. Therefore, in this study, the shape similarities were investigated between the two arm models with holes, immediately after separating the decoration parts.

Automatic Ergonomic Risk Assessment Using a Variational Deep Network Architecture.

Ergonomic risk assessment is vital for identifying work-related human postures that can be detrimental to the health of a worker. Traditionally, ergonomic risks are reported by human experts through time-consuming and error-prone procedures; however, automatic algorithmic methods have recently started to emerge. To further facilitate the automatic ergonomic risk assessment, this paper proposes a novel variational deep learning architecture to estimate the ergonomic risk of any work-related task by utilizing the Rapid Entire Body Assessment (REBA) framework. The proposed method relies on the processing of RGB images and the extraction of 3D skeletal information that is then fed to a novel deep network for accurate and robust estimation of REBA scores for both individual body parts and the entire body. Through a variational approach, the proposed method processes the skeletal information to construct a descriptive skeletal latent space that can accurately model human postures. Moreover, the proposed method distills knowledge from ground truth ergonomic risk scores and leverages it to further enhance the discrimination ability of the skeletal latent space, leading to improved accuracy. Experiments on two well-known datasets (i.e., University of Washington Indoor Object Manipulation (UW-IOM) and Technische Universität München (TUM) Kitchen) validate the ability of the proposed method to achieve accurate results, overcoming current state-of-the-art methods.

Frontal collision simulation in laboratory conditions

The article presents the displacement of individual body parts of volunteers during a controlled crash test at low speed. The crash test stand used is equipped with a vehicle seat with standard seat belts, which moves along the ramp rails. The stand enables both front, side and rear crash tests. The stand enables crash tests from 5 km/h to 20 km/h. The aim of the research is to compare the displacements of individual parts of the volunteers’ body, taking into account the division into sex. A study carried out on 130 volunteers (80 men and 50 women), at a collision speed of 15 km/h, showed slight differences in the trajectory of the volunteers’ head movement. Before the study, the volunteers were measured and weighed, and then assigned to the appropriate population percentile. Volunteers were classified into a given percentile group on the basis of the mean of 15 anthropometric dimensions of individual body parts. The obtained results are the basis for building a physical model of a dummy.

Motion Puzzle: Arbitrary Motion Style Transfer by Body Part

This article presents Motion Puzzle, a novel motion style transfer network that advances the state-of-the-art in several important respects. The Motion Puzzle is the first that can control the motion style of individual body parts, allowing for local style editing and significantly increasing the range of stylized motions. Designed to keep the human’s kinematic structure, our framework extracts style features from multiple style motions for different body parts and transfers them locally to the target body parts. Another major advantage is that it can transfer both global and local traits of motion style by integrating the adaptive instance normalization and attention modules while keeping the skeleton topology. Thus, it can capture styles exhibited by dynamic movements, such as flapping and staggering, significantly better than previous work. In addition, our framework allows for arbitrary motion style transfer without datasets with style labeling or motion pairing, making many publicly available motion datasets available for training. Our framework can be easily integrated with motion generation frameworks to create many applications, such as real-time motion transfer. We demonstrate the advantages of our framework with a number of examples and comparisons with previous work.

The incapacity to work as moving target. Exploring the possibilities of praxiography for analysing realities of disability in history

While acknowledging the discursive meaning of bodies, both gender and disability scholars try to overcome a strict nature–culture or medical model–social model divide. This article explores the possibilities of praxiography for disability history to overcome this divide. Praxiography, as introduced by Annemarie Mol, approaches the body and gender as something that is made up in encounters between people, objects, and practices. Mol has shown that, although a singular term may suggest there is coherence, this coherence is managed in practice. This article provides a practice-focused analysis of appeal cases in which incapacity to work was contested in the context of the first disability benefit act in the Netherlands (1901–1921) and shows how incapacity to work was made up as incapacity to earn a living and shifted to meticulous descriptions of the functioning of individual body parts. Although the topic of power remains to be explored, by looking at incapacity to work as a site of interaction, we can challenge perceptions of disability and gender as a biological or a cultural truth and incorporate matter into the historical analysis of the making of social categories.

Analyzing multidimensional movement interaction with generalized cross-wavelet transform.

Humans are able to synchronize with musical events whilst coordinating their movements with others. Interpersonal entrainment phenomena, such as dance, involve multiple body parts and movement directions. Along with being multidimensional, dance movement interaction is plurifrequential, since it can occur at different frequencies simultaneously. Moreover, it is prone to nonstationarity, due to, for instance, displacements around the dance floor. Various methodological approaches have been adopted for the study of human entrainment, but only spectrogram-based techniques allow for an integral analysis thereof. This article proposes an alternative approach based upon the cross-wavelet transform, a state-of-the-art technique for nonstationary and plurifrequential analysis of univariate interaction. The presented approach generalizes the cross-wavelet transform to multidimensional signals. It allows to identify, for different frequencies of movement, estimates of interaction and leader-follower dynamics across body parts and movement directions. Further, the generalized cross-wavelet transform can be used to quantify the frequency-wise contribution of individual body parts and movement directions to overall movement synchrony. Since both in- and anti-phase relationships are dominant modes of coordination, the proposed implementation ignores whether movements are identical or opposite in phase. The article provides a thorough mathematical description of the method and includes proofs of its invariance under translation, rotation, and reflection. Finally, its properties and performance are illustrated via four examples using simulated data and behavioral data collected through a mirror game task and a free dance movement task.

Mercury in scarletina bolete mushroom (Neoboletus luridiformis): Intake, spatial distribution in the fruiting body, accumulation ability and health risk assessment

In the present work, we focused on two aspects of mercury (Hg) bioconcentration in the above-ground parts of Neoboletus luridiformis. In the first part, we monitored the bioconcentration potential of individual anatomical parts of a particular fruiting body and evaluated the obtained data by the spline interpolation method. In the second part, we focused on assessing the mercury content in 378 samples of N. luridiformis and associated samples of substrates from 38 localities with different levels of Hg content in Slovakia. From the obtained data of Hg content in samples of substrate and fungi, we evaluated ecological indicators (geoaccumulation index – Igeo, contamination factor – Cf a potential ecological risk – PER), bioconcentration indicators (bioconcentration factor – BCF; cap/stipe quotient – Qc/s) and health indicators (percentage of provisional tolerable weekly intake – %PTWI a target hazard quotient – THQ). Based on the Hg distribution results, the highest Hg content was found in the tubes & pores (3.86 mg/kg DW), followed by the flesh of cap (1.82 mg/kg DW). The lowest Hg content was in the stipe (1.23 mg/kg DW). The results of the BCF values indicate that the studied species can be included in the category of mercury accumulators. The results of the ecological indices representing the state of soil pollution pointed out that two localities (Malachov and Nižná Slaná) stood apart from all monitored localities and showed a state of an extremely disturbed environment. This fact was also reflected in the values of Hg content in the fruiting bodies of the studied mushroom species. In the case of the consumption of mushrooms from these localities, it can be stated that long-term and regular consumption could have a negative non-carcinogenic effect on the health of consumers. It was confirmed by the %PTWI (Malachov: 57.8%; Nižná Slaná: 53.2%) and THQ (Malachov: 1.11 Nižná Slaná: 1.02). The locality Čačín-Jelšovec is interesting from the bioconcentration characteristics point of view, where the level of environmental pollution was the lowest (Hg content in the soil was below the background value) compared to other localities, however, the THQ value was the highest (1.29).

Simulation of a Dummy Crash Test in Adams

The article presents a model designed dummy for crash test in ADAMS. The simulated model dummy has dimensions, shapes and mass corresponding to a 50-percentile man. The simulation program allows modification of the dummy parameters. It allows to study the dynamics of motion, distribution of forces and loads of individual parts of the body of the simulated model. The article describes the design process and how to select the appropriate stiffness and damping joints for the simulated dummy. The article contains the results of simulation crash tests performed in the ADAMS program, which were compared to results of the Hybryd III dummy physical crash test. The simulation is designed to reflect the greatest compliance of the movements of individual parts of the human body during the low speed collision.

The effect of space allowance in the cage and floor systems on feather condition and egg production

The egg production sector is in a transitional period with regard to the permitted housing systems, i.e. rearing in conventional cages under certain conditions to the complete ban of any form of cage system. The changes were caused by concern for the layer wellfare but with the expected effects on productivity as well. The aim of the research was to determine the effects of the floor space allowance in cage and non-cage housing systems on the feather score and egg production of laying hens of three ages, from the aspect of the regulated minimum and optimal space in the cage system (C) and the space provided in the extensive rearing system with hens in smaller groups in the facility (extensive indoor -EI). In order to determine the feather score, the body weight of the laying hens and the weight of the eggs, three groups of laying hens were formed: C4 (564 cm2 per hen, cage system), C3 (751 cm2 per hen, cage system) and EI ( 3000 cm2 per hen, extensive indoor). The feather score and body weight of laying hens were determined in three ages of hens (30, 40, 50 weeks), by individual assessment and measurement of all hens in the experiment. The hen-day egg production and egg weight were determined in the same weeks of laying age. In addition to the expected decrease in feather score with the age of hens, results indicated a significant interaction between age and space allowance per hen. Observed by individual body parts, as well as based on the overall feather score, the space allowance per hen exhibited a full, cumulative effect at 50 weeks of age. Based on the space allowance, it was possible to rank the overall feather score, with the laying hens with the most space having the best feather score. The effect of the space allowance on the body weight of the laying hens was manifested through the space available on the feeder, which resulted in the lowest (p<0.01) body weight values recorded in laying hens of the C4 group. Egg production was not significantly influenced by the space allowance per hen (p=0.069), but a connection between egg production and the housing system can be concluded. The average egg weight, in addition to the known effect of layer age, was the lowest (p<0.01) in the group with the least space allowance per hen.

«Змея-целительница» в мифоритуальной традиции башкир

In the oral tradition and everyday rituals of the Bashkirs, the snake, as the first ancestor and patroness, acts as a healer of people. In Bashkir folklore, beneficent snakes resurrect heroes cut into pieces, restore their sight and give advice on how to revive a person. The Bashkirs believed that at home, yards where snakes live, diseases are bypassed. In the mystical views and magical practice of the Bashkirs, healing properties were attributed to individual parts of the snake body. So, the Bashkirs, when abscesses appeared under the nails, applied a snake crawl to the sore spot. Snake skin was also used for eye diseases, and also as a wet poultice for joint pain and swelling. Stewed meat of a black snake was used for damage to vision. In Bashkir folklore, plots of the use of the ashes of a burnt snake for medicinal purposes are recorded. Snakes resorted to help not only in case of illness of people, but also in case of illness of livestock. The snake, having the gift of healing ailments, can at the same time endow people with these abilities. According to the prejudices of the Bashkirs, the hands of a person who found a snake crawled out were recognized as healing. Similar ideas about the «healer snake» are in the religious and mythological beliefs of the most diverse peoples of the world

A second fossil species of the enigmatic rove beetle genusCharhyphusin Eocene Baltic amber, with implications on the morphology of the female genitalia (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae: Phloeocharinae)

ABSTRACTPhloeocharinae is a small and likely non-monophyletic subfamily of rove beetles. The enigmatic genusCharhyphusSharp, 1887 has long been placed in Phloeocharinae, whereas recent studies have found it to be phylogenetically very distant from the core members of this subfamily, suggesting the possibility that it actually deserves its own separate subfamily status. So far, the sole definitive fossil record forCharhyphusis known based on a single male from Eocene Baltic amber as represented by †Charhyphus balticusShavrin, 2020. Here, we describe and illustrate another newCharhyphusspecies, †Charhyphus serratussp. nov. Yamamoto & Shavrin, from Baltic amber based on a well-preserved female fossil. Considering the general proportions of the body and the head, this new species is most similar to †C.balticus. The new species differs from all known species by the development of strong serration of the lateral edges of the pronotum and features of the shape of the apical margin of the mesoventrite. By using X-ray micro-computed tomography, we succeeded in visualising not only the general habitus but also each individual body part, recovering a previously undocumented sclerite on the female internal genital segments in the genus. Morphological features of extinct and extant species ofCharhyphusare briefly discussed. Figures of all extantCharhyphusspecies and a key for the genus are also provided. Our study is important for considering possible higher palaeodiversity, more common occurrence, and palaeobiogeography ofCharhyphus.