Individual Family Members Research Articles

Chemical tools for selective activity profiling of bacterial penicillin-binding proteins.

Penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) are membrane-associated proteins involved in the biosynthesis of peptidoglycan (PG), the main component of bacterial cell walls. These proteins were discovered and named for their affinity to bind the β-lactam antibiotic penicillin. The importance of the PBPs has long been appreciated; however, specific roles of individual family members in each bacterial strain, as well as their protein-protein interactions, are yet to be understood. The apparent functional redundancy of the 4-18 PBPs that most eubacteria possess makes determination of their individual roles difficult. Existing techniques to study PBPs are not ideal because they do not directly visualize protein activity and can suffer from artifacts and perturbations of native PBP function. Therefore, development of new methods for studying the roles of individual PBPs in cell wall synthesis is required. We recently generated a library of fluorescent chemical probes containing a β-lactone scaffold that specifically targets the PBPs, enabling the visualization of their catalytic activity. Herein, we describe a general protocol to label and detect the activity of individual PBPs in Streptococcus pneumoniae using our fluorescent β-lactone probes.

Public and cultural activity of the Mordovsky family in Yekaterinoslav Region in the second half of the 19th and in the beginning of the 20th centuries

The purpose of the article is to highlight the contribution of the Mordovsky family to the development of library space of Yekaterinoslav province. Research methods: system-structural, analytical-synthetic, comparative.Main results. The Mordovsky family left a remarkable trace in cultural and public life of Yekaterinoslav province. Individual representatives of the family, which had different occupations, were united bycooperation with library centers. The life path of a zemstvo leader and a member of Yekaterinoslav Town Duma P. G. Mordovsky was closely connected with the library board, and his achievements in the field of library business contributed to the enhancement of librariesʼ status. Experience and contribution of G. P. Mordovska to the development of the Town Public Library at the beginning of the 20th century was significant, namely, an active participation in library reorganization. P. F. Mordovsky, an agrarian, known for his productive activity at Novomoskovsk association of village farmers, was responsible for the specialized library and its replenishment at the end of the 19th century. In this field he manifested himself as a professional librarian dealing with issues on the library's replenishment and book loaning to the members of the centre.Conclusions. The place and role of zemstvo and public leaders from the Mordovsky family in cultural space of the region are determined. The description of lives of individual members of the Mordovsky family helps create a broad ethnographic circle.Practical meaning. It is recommended for scholars for in-depth study of historical and library lore studies.The scientific novelty is the discovery by the author of previously unexplored materials about the activities of individual personalities of Yekaterinoslav intelligentsia.Type of article: descriptive.

Combined individual and family therapy in comparison to treatment as usual for people at-risk of psychosis: A feasibility study (IF CBT): Trial rationale, methodology and baseline characteristics.

Current National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidelines for psychosis recommend psychological therapy with or without family intervention for individuals at-risk of developing psychosis. NICE guidelines have a specific research recommendation to investigate the clinical and cost effectiveness of combined individual and family intervention. We report the rationale, design and baseline characteristics of a feasibility study which aimed to investigate combined Individual and Family Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (IFCBT) for those at-risk of developing psychosis. The IFCBT study was a single blind, pilot randomized controlled trial (RCT) to compare a combined individual and family Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) intervention to treatment as usual. Participants were assessed using the Comprehensive Assessment of the At-risk Mental State (CAARMS) and randomly allocated to either therapy or enhanced treatment as usual (ETAU). All participants were followed up at 6 and 12 months. Primary feasibility outcomes were recruitment and retention of participants. Secondary outcomes included transition to psychosis and assessment of mood, anxiety and the relationship of the individual and nominated family member. We report data showing entry into the study from initial enquiry to randomization. We report the characteristics of the recruited sample of individuals (n = 70) and family members (n = 70) at baseline. The study recruited to 92% of target demonstrating it is feasible to identify and recruit participants. Our study aimed to add to the current evidence base regarding the utility of family interventions for people at-risk of psychosis.

The Image of Water in the Traditional Rituals and Folksongs of the Western Podolia

The article provides a detailed discussion of the image of water in the traditional rituals of the Western Podolia. The synonymous representations of water are particularly numerous in the ritual calendar songs of the winter cycle. The article focuses on the sources of folklore and ethnology providing grounds for an exhaustive analysis of the water image as an inherent part of the human life.The article elucidates the importance of water in the ancient Slavic and particularly in the Ukrainian culture. The ancient Slavs have been recorded as worshiping and bringing sacrifices to the rivers, lakes, wells and springs. The most important water goddess for the Ukrainian ancestors was Dana, venerated as a bright and benevolent deity that would ensure life to all the living things. Therefore, the names of the greatest Slavic rivers derive from the word dana. Similar power is ascribed to the spring rain and thunder. Rain embodies the celestial water element, while thunder combines two life bringing principles – water and light.The analysis of the national cultural heritage primarily brings forth the importance of water in the traditional worldview of the Western Podolia. The sacramental aspects of water are prominent in numerous charms and spells, which distinctly reveal personification of water and surviving reflections of its divine quality. The broadly popular magical uses of water are interpreted on the grounds of the traditional local belief in its cleansing effect and healing abilities applied to all the surrounding objects. The consecrated Jordan water that was believed to provide powerful protection from all the evil spirits was regarded in Western Podolia as an indispensable attribute of all the healing and economical magic. In Western Podolia, as in many other ethnographic Ukrainian regions, the traditional bathing in water during the calendar winter festivities was widely practiced for the purposes of ensuring physical health. This ritual has survived until nowadays along with other contemporary traditions. According to the old Ukrainian collections of the traditional folksong texts, the notion of dunai is most frequent in the folksongs from the Western Podolia. In the lyrics of these songs the water of dunai commonly occurs in such synonymous manifestations as the water as such, as a river, as a lake, as a sea or an ocean, and as other shapes of water (rain or snow), also – as a faraway country. Symbolic representations of the dunai water are particularly frequent in the wedding songs from the Western Podolia. Water as personified passive side of creation provides typical environment for the woman to make herself ready for entering the matrimony and for ensuring the continuation of life. The mythical image of dunai is rather widespread in the traditional ballads from the Western Podolia as well. Here, the water appears as a relentless deity extending its fatal embrace to accommodate the young married couples or individual family members that have betrayed each other, or as a fast, deep and overwhelming stream that proves deadly to people. In other traditional socially engaged folksongs from the Western Podolia the image of dunai is considerably less frequent. Here, it is mostly identified with the “faraway lands” and can acquire the actual meaning of the Danube River.

Partners in Crime: Clandestine Operations among RAS-RAF Accomplices in Promoting Tumorigenesis.

In this issue of Molecular Cell, Terrell etal. (2019) characterize the interactions of RAS-RAF complexes in live cells. Using bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET) technology, they show that individual RAF family members exhibit distinct binding affinities to each RAS family protein, with CRAF exhibiting high binding affinities for all RAS proteins and BRAF exhibiting increased binding affinity for KRAS.

Distinct Roles for BET Family Members in Estrogen Receptor α Enhancer Function and Gene Regulation in Breast Cancer Cells.

The bromodomain family member proteins (BRD; BET proteins) are key coregulators for estrogen receptor alpha (ERα)-mediated transcriptional enhancers. The use of BRD-selective inhibitors has gained much attention as a potential treatment for various solid tumors, including ER-positive breast cancers. However, the roles of individual BET family members have largely remained unexplored. Here, we describe the role of BRDs in estrogen (E2)-dependent gene expression in ERα-positive breast cancer cells. We observed that chemical inhibition of BET family proteins with JQ1 impairs E2-regulated gene expression and growth in breast cancer cells. In addition, RNAi-mediated depletion of each BET family member (BRDs 2, 3, and 4) revealed partially redundant roles at ERα enhancers and for target gene transcription. Furthermore, we found a unique role of BRD3 as a molecular sensor of total BET family protein levels and activity through compensatory control of its own protein levels. Finally, we observed that BRD3 is recruited to a subset of ERα-binding sites (ERBS) that are enriched for active enhancer features, located in clusters of ERBSs likely functioning as "super enhancers," and associated with highly E2-responsive genes. Collectively, our results illustrate a critical and specific role for BET family members in ERα-dependent gene transcription. IMPLICATIONS: BRD3 is recruited to and controls the activity of a subset ERα transcriptional enhancers, providing a therapeutic opportunity to target BRD3 with BET inhibitors in ERα-positive breast cancers.

LIFE FOR THE FAMILIES OF THE VICTORIAN CRIMINALLY INSANE

AbstractThis article uses hundreds of letters written by the families of patients committed to Victorian Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum to provide the first sustained examination of the effects of asylum committal on patients’ individual family members. It shows that, despite what historians have previously suggested, the effect on families was not solely, or even necessarily primarily, economic; it had significant emotional effects, and affected family members’ sense of self and relationships outside the asylum. It also shows that family ties and affective relationships mattered a great deal to working-class Victorians. Some found new ways to give meaning to their relationship with, and the life of, their incarcerated relative, despite the costs this entailed. By taking a new approach – engaging with the history of the family, shifting focus from patients to their individual family members, and considering factors including age, class, gender, change over time, and life stage – this article demonstrates the breadth and depth of the effects of asylum committal, and in doing so provides new and significant insights into the history of the Victorian asylum. It also enriches the history of the family by providing an insight into working-class quotidian lives, bonds, and emotions.

A Survey of Specialist Youth Gender Diversity Services in Australia: A Whole‐of‐Family Approach

The number of referrals for children and young people seeking to affirm their gender has risen exponentially in Australia and elsewhere. Whilst the individual mental health needs and treatment outcomes for this group have been the subject of recent research, considerably less emphasis has been placed on exploring and amalgamating individual family member experiences, particularly siblings, using circular questioning. Yet, gender diversity is known to affect everyone in the family, and research clearly demonstrates that youth who feel validated and supported by individual family members in their gender identities benefit from improved mental health and global outcomes. This study aims to explore current clinical practices, professional viewpoints, use of circular questioning, and whole‐of‐family involvement in specialist youth gender diversity services in Australia. Clinical leads and coordinators of publicly funded youth gender diversity services and individual specialists across Australia were invited to complete an online survey, exploring individual protocols and practices in relation to involving the family, and the rationale underpinning this. All six respondents agreed that adopting a systemic understanding, considering general family functioning, and seeking individual family member opinions, was critical. Nevertheless, all family members were infrequently seen, with resourcing issues and time constraints being cited as the main reasons. The value of adopting a systemic and whole‐of‐family line of enquiry was supported by all respondents. Whilst sibling viewpoints were considered valuable by most professionals, siblings were infrequently seen for a variety of reasons. Further attention could therefore be given to involving siblings during specialist assessments. The findings consistently highlighted the value of a systemic line of enquiry and whole‐of‐family approach for gender diversity services and specialists. However, no current assessment guidelines incorporate this as a recommendation. Therefore, future Australian guidelines could formalise a systemic approach.

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase enzymes and the maintenance of genome integrity.

DNA damage response (DDR) relies on swift and accurate signaling to rapidly identify DNA lesions and initiate repair. A critical DDR signaling and regulatory molecule is the posttranslational modification poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR). PAR is synthesized by a family of structurally and functionally diverse proteins called poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs). Although PARPs share a conserved catalytic domain, unique regulatory domains of individual family members endow PARPs with unique properties and cellular functions. Family members PARP-1, PARP-2, and PARP-3 (DDR-PARPs) are catalytically activated in the presence of damaged DNA and act as damage sensors. Family members tankyrase-1 and closely related tankyrase-2 possess SAM and ankyrin repeat domains that regulate their diverse cellular functions. Recent studies have shown that the tankyrases share some overlapping functions with the DDR-PARPs, and even perform novel functions that help preserve genomic integrity. In this review, we briefly touch on DDR-PARP functions, and focus on the emerging roles of tankyrases in genome maintenance. Preservation of genomic integrity thus appears to be a common function of several PARP family members, depicting PAR as a multifaceted guardian of the genome.

AN INTERGENERATIONAL DYADIC APPROACH TO UNDERSTANDING GRANDPARENT DEATH WITHIN A FAMILY SYSTEM

Due to increased longevity and generational location, grandparent death creates new contexts for identity, family culture, and intergenerational relationships. To explore this loss from two perspectives, we conducted intensive interviews with young adults and their mothers (N = 16) who experienced a recent grandparent (parent) death. Guided by the life course perspective, we were interested to learn how grandparent death may shape identity, meaning, and behaviors among family members, and influence their shared parent-child relationship. Findings suggest that the relationship with the grandparent, the diverse expressions of grief, the navigation of family transitions during and after death, and the curation of grandparent memories influenced individual and family outcomes. Implications suggest the need for varied supports that are sensitive to how individual family members approach grief in distinct ways reflective of their developmental positions, past experiences, and relational expectations.

Elevated β-cell stress levels promote severe diabetes development in mice with MODY4.

Maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY) is a group of monogenetic forms of diabetes mellitus caused by mutations in genes regulating β-cell development and function. MODY represents a heterogeneous group of non-insulin-dependent diabetes arising in childhood or adult life. Interestingly, clinical heterogeneity in MODY patients like variable disease onset and severity is observed even among individual family members sharing the same mutation, an issue that is not well understood. As high blood glucose levels are a well-known factor promoting β-cell stress and ultimately leading to cell death, we asked whether additional β-cell stress might account for the occurrence of disease heterogeneity in mice carrying a MODY4 mutation. In order to challenge β-cells, we established a MODY4 animal model based on Pdx1 (pancreatic and duodenal homeobox 1) haploinsufficiency, which allows conditional modulation of cell stress by genetic inhibition of the stress-responsive IKK/NF-κB signalling pathway. While Pdx1+/− mice were found glucose intolerant without progressing to diabetes, additional challenge of β-cell function by IKK/NF-κB inhibition promoted rapid diabetes development showing hyperglycaemia, hypoinsulinemia and loss of β-cell mass. Disease pathogenesis was characterized by deregulation of genes controlling β-cell homeostasis and function. Importantly, restoration of normal IKK/NF-κB signalling reverted the diabetic phenotype including normalization of glycaemia and β-cell mass. Our findings implicate that the avoidance of additional β-cell stress can delay a detrimental disease progression in MODY4 diabetes. Remarkably, an already present diabetic phenotype can be reversed when β-cell stress is normalized.

Caring for technology-dependent children at home: Problems and solutions identified by mothers

The population of children who are dependent on life-sustaining medical technology in the United States is over 600,000 and continues to grow (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2013). Technology-dependent children have complex, chronic conditions and are dependent on technology such as mechanical ventilation, intravenous nutrition or medication, respiratory support or nutritional support to live (Toly, Musil & Carl, 2012a; Spratling, 2015). Advances in medical technology allow technology-dependent children to live longer. Yet, the care associated with technology significantly impacts individual family members and family life on a daily basis over an indefinite period (Toly et al., 2012a; Caicedo, 2014; Caicedo, 2015). Following the technology-dependent child’s discharge to home, families begin to adjust to the change imposed by caring for a child with these complex care needs by creating a new “normal.” This new normal requires that the parent respond to the situation and adapt their lifestyle to accommodate the healthcare needs of the child (Toly et al., 2012a; Knafl & Deatrick, 2003). This process, referred to as normalization in the literature, begins with accepting the reality of the child’s condition and the potential lifestyle and family changes needed to manage the child’s condition (Deatrick, Knafl, & Murphy-Moore, 1999; Knafl et al., 2013). When normalization is present, parents feel competent in caring for the complex healthcare needs of their children and incorporating the medical management into their family lifestyle and routines (Deatrick et al., 1999; Knafl et al., 2013; Rehm, 2005). These families adopt unique solutions for solving the problems they experience and adjust the environment to provide their children with as many everyday childhood experiences as a typical, normally developing child (Leyenaar, O’Brien, Leslie, Lindenauer, & Mangione-Smith, 2017). Families caring for a technology-dependent child at home must learn to restructure goals based on balancing daily family life with their children’s required medical technology to keep the child stable and healthy while concomitantly maintaining a functioning family (Toly et al., 2012a; Toly, Musil & Carl, 2012b). When parents feel like they fully understand their children’s medical condition, they perceive the condition management as less burdensome and have greater confidence in their parenting skills (Deatrick et al., 1999; Sav et al., 2015; Smith, Cheater, & Bekker, 2015). Other families struggle in their normalization efforts and experience unresolved problems in the day-to-day medical management of their children’s condition (Gonzalez et al., 2017; Knafl & Deatrick, 2003). Parents face challenges in balancing normalcy, family life, household needs, and medical care or treatment needs of their technology-dependent child. The constant change in the care needs of the technology-dependent child and unpredictability of the child’s health status can lead parents to focus on the child’s health schedule and routine to the detriment of other family roles and responsibilities (Leyenaar et al., 2017; Smith et al., 2015). 1.1. Study Purpose The purpose of this study was to identify the day-to-day management problems and solutions employed by mothers of technology-dependent children. At this time, there is little information to assist parent caregivers with the day-to-day management problems they might experience while caring for their technology-dependent children at home (Dybwik, Tollali, Nielsen, & Brinchmann, 2011). Thus, exploring management problems and solutions to these problems is warranted.

Providing Appropriate Social Support to Prevention of Depression for Highly Anxious Sufferers

Depression is becoming a serious global health problem worldwide, with an increasing number of patients suffering from anxiety and other disorders. Our work aims to provide the appropriate social support (SS) to the prevention of depression for highly anxious undergraduates. We used 1425 undergraduates from 18 universities in China via a cluster random sampling method for the survey on the self-rating anxiety scale, the self-rating depression scale, and the SS scale for anxiety and depression. Based on the collected questionnaire data, we first reveal that the distribution of both anxiety data and depression data follows a Gaussian distribution. Then, a Gaussian mixture model is adopted for clustering these data in terms of anxiety index and depression index. According to the observations extracted from the clusters, the correlation among anxiety, depression, and SS is investigated by a correlation analysis method. Finally, the corresponding moderating effect of SS between anxiety and depression is figured out via the hierarchical multiple regression analysis. The detailed analysis indicates that the high-level SS, such as the help and support from individual's friends or family members, could reduce the risk for depression from highly anxious undergraduates.

MS05.05 Harnessing Oncogene Dependencies in Lung Cancer

The introduction of precision medicine had a dramatic impact on the overall survival of genomically selected lung cancer patients. This is primarily true for lung adenocarcinomas in which druggable targets like mutant EGFR or rearranged ALK are frequently oncogenically activated. The major challenge in these patients is the inevitable emergence of drug resistant clones that abrogate the effects of selected tyrosine kinase inhibitors. Through a detailed characterization of patients that relapse under osimertinib treatment we identified novel routes to overcome individual resistance mutations in EGFR. At the same time, the majority of lung lacks directly druggbale targets and thus remains largely unaffected by this therapeutic revolution. The induction of programmed cell death by perturbing the pro- and anti-apoptotic members of the BCL-2 family may represent an attractive strategy to circumvent this medical need. We sought to explore dependencies on individual BCL-2 family members with different therapeutic strategies to identify therapeutically relevant pathways in lung cancer models. resistance, BCL-2 family

Screening for Multiple Types of Family Violence: Development and Validation of the Family Polyvictimization Screen.

Objective: Different types of violence tend to co-occur within a family where the members often share common family characteristics, a situation described as family polyvictimization. In response to the lack of a validated screening tool, this study developed and validated the Family Polyvictimization Screen (FPS), the first brief screening tool applicable to members of the same family with up to three generations.Methods: The FPS was designed to screen family polyvictimization by assessing and capturing different types of violence, including child abuse and neglect (CAN), intimate partner violence (IPV), and elder abuse. The FPS was compared with the Criterion Standard scales. It is suitable for use as a self-report for individual family members for specific violence or as a proxy report for an adult family member to serve as informant. In this study, a community sample of 445 households was recruited from Hong Kong (n = 250) and Shanghai (n = 195). One adult parent from each three-generation family was selected as the informant to report all family polyvictimization experiences in the preceding year.Results: Moderate to high agreement (79.1–99.8%) was found between the FPS and the standard measurements, such as the revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2) and the Conflict Tactics Scales: Parent-Child Version (CTSPC). Exceptions appeared in regard to physical assault on elders due to the rarity of reported cases. The specificity was high, while the sensitivity estimates appeared low, especially for the more sensitive sexual abuse cases.Conclusion: The validated FPS demonstrated its potential utility as a brief tool for screening family polyvictimization in clinical settings with substantial agreement and satisfactory accuracy in the Chinese population.

Our babies[’] count[er story]: A narrative ethnography of a baby loss remembrance walk ritual

ABSTRACTThe non-profit organization Now I Lay Me Down to Sleep (NILMDTS) hosts annual remembrance walks that gather bereaved families to honor babies who have died. Grounded in narrative theory and research on family communication rituals, the present study focused on understanding how the NILMDTS Remembrance Walk counternarrates the experience of baby loss vis-à-vis the master narrative that silences it. Our narrative ethnography included participating alongside approximately 1375–1600 bereaved family members, respectively, in the 2014 and 2015 Remembrance Walks taking place in Littleton, Colorado. Two interwoven counternarratives resisted the master narrative. The communal loss narrative centered community-building for families and the individual loss narrative emphasized the unique identities of babies, as well as their individual family units and members.

Intensive mothering in hard times: Foucauldian ethical self-formation and cruel optimism

Discourses of intensive mothering now seem to dominate European and American parenting cultures. This is a problem for those mothers who do not currently possess the resources to match up. In a study of Italian and British mothers who are experiencing low or reduced incomes, we observe the ways in which they internalize intensive mothering discourses through a process of ethical self-formation. This mode of self-formation involves detailed self-surveillance and self-discipline and abnegation of their own needs in place of other individual family members, and the family as a whole. We find a series of contradictory emotional effects which generate both pride and self-worth but also stress and anxiety. We advance the theory that mothers operate within an optimistic affective regime to make sense of these contradictory effects and retain a sense of agency and control over their lives and those of their families. However, drawing on Berlant’s concept of cruel optimism, we argue that such affective regimes may be very pernicious in their effects, only serving to hold mothers in a relation that is ultimately impassable and often unfulfilling.

Transient Receptor Potential channels (version 2019.4) in the IUPHAR/BPS Guide to Pharmacology Database

Transient Receptor Potential channels (version 2019.4) in the IUPHAR/BPS Guide to Pharmacology Database

Does health guidance concerning lifestyle disease prevention spread to spouses? A qualitative study.

To describe how a health guidance programme provided to one person influences change in their spouse's health behaviours. Individuals are indirectly affected by the health behaviours of those close to them; therefore, it is likely that guidance on the prevention of lifestyle disease modifies the behaviour of targeted individuals and their family members. In a previous study, approximately 30% of families displayed positive health changes because one individual family member received health guidance. This study used an inductive, exploratory, qualitative design. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with spouses of persons who participated in a health guidance programme for lifestyle-related disease prevention. Data were analysed from 11 spouses (all women; Mage =61.0±9.1years) using a modified grounded theory approach. This study was conducted according to the consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research (COREQ; see Appendix S1). The process of change in each spouse was a result of their partner's influence, which changed from a stage of assisting, where the spouse contemplated {I am just a supporter} to the partner, to a stage where the spouse thought {I am also a player}, and she engaged in her own health improvement practices. For a spouse to change from assisting their partner to becoming a practitioner of their own health improvement, the spouse needed to experience a sense of surprise at the changes in her partner, through calm observation of the partner's attitude. Through the spreading effect of health guidance utilisation, indirect encouragement could be expected, even when people have difficulty accessing healthcare services. This type of spreading effect from one participant to a family member could perhaps assist health guidance provisions so that disease prevention becomes more efficient.

Novel ribozymes: discovery, catalytic mechanisms, and the quest to understand biological function.

Small endonucleolytic ribozymes promote the self-cleavage of their own phosphodiester backbone at a specific linkage. The structures of and the reactions catalysed by members of individual families have been studied in great detail in the past decades. In recent years, bioinformatics studies have uncovered a considerable number of new examples of known catalytic RNA motifs. Importantly, entirely novel ribozyme classes were also discovered, for most of which both structural and biochemical information became rapidly available. However, for the majority of the new ribozymes, which are found in the genomes of a variety of species, a biological function remains elusive. Here, we concentrate on the different approaches to find catalytic RNA motifs in sequence databases. We summarize the emerging principles of RNA catalysis as observed for small endonucleolytic ribozymes. Finally, we address the biological functions of those ribozymes, where relevant information is available and common themes on their cellular activities are emerging. We conclude by speculating on the possibility that the identification and characterization of proteins that we hypothesize to be endogenously associated with catalytic RNA might help in answering the ever-present question of the biological function of the growing number of genomically encoded, small endonucleolytic ribozymes.