Individual Justice Research Articles

'Unity in Diversity' Reloaded: The European Court of Human Rights’ Turn to Subsidiarity and its Consequences

The European Convention of Human Rights system was originally created to sound the alarm if democracy was threatened in the member states. Yet, it eventually developed into a very different system with a focus on providing individual justice in an ever growing number of member states. This transformation has raised fundamental questions as to the level of difference and diversity allowed within the common European human rights space. Was the system to rest on minimum standards with room for domestic differences, or was it to create uniform standards? These questions have come up as increasingly contentious issues over the past years and have triggered a number of reforms seeking to introduce more subsidiarity in the system and striking a different balance between the European and national oversight of human rights. The article analyses this turn to subsidiarity by exploring whether the reform process has introduced new forms of difference and diversity within the common space of European human rights. Covering the period from 2000 to the end of 2019 and using a dataset if all judgments of the period, the article provides a structural analyses of developments in references to margin of appreciation which is the European Court of Human Rights’ long-standing tool for balancing the common standards, yet leaving space for individual member states to find local solutions to implementing those standards. It concludes that recent developments have contributed to a more federal-style construction of European human rights with more space for differences within the common general standards.

Father on the Bench: Justice William R. Day and Kinship Recusal

Father on the Bench: Justice William R. Day and Kinship Recusal Clare Cushman (bio) As the Supreme Court entered the twentieth century, it had not established a consistent institutional practice or even guidelines for its members to decide when to recuse themselves from a case when there may be a conflict of interest with one of the parties involved. In the nineteenth century, it had been left up to the individual justice to choose whether to opt out when a relative, friend, or business ally brought a case before the high bench, and justices nearly always chose to opt in. When William R. Day took his seat on the Court in 1903, his benchmates still lacked a uniform protocol for disqualifying themselves when a family member was involved in a case. Justice Day thus had to chart his own path when his four sons—William Louis Day (1876–1936), Luther Day (1879–1965), Stephen Albion Day (1882–1950), and Rufus Spalding Day (1884–1963)—developed robust appellate practices and presented cases to the Supreme Court by written brief and oral argument. As a devoted father who wanted his sons to enjoy successful legal careers but who also sought to protect the integrity of the institution he served for 19 Terms, Justice Day often faced the difficult decision of whether to disqualify himself in a case. A close examination of the legal practices of the four Day sons is thus warranted to shed light on their father’s sense of judicial propriety and on the evolving conventions of kinship recusal practice at the Supreme Court during his tenure. History of Kinship Recusal Practice at the Supreme Court Congress passed its first recusal statute in 1792, but it only applied to lower federal courts.1 The statute was amended many times over the next century and a judge’s relative appearing as a party became grounds for a judge to disqualify himself,2 but it would not be until 1948 that federal disqualification law was amended to include the Supreme Court.3 Of course, the justices were familiar with both the compulsory terms and the practices of lower court judges, many previously having served on appellate courts. [End Page 62] To understand the conventions regarding kinship recusal at the Supreme Court when Day arrived at the Court, a comprehensive accounting of family members who practiced before the justices during its first century would be useful. Unfortunately, no such work exists. Based on anecdotal evidence, however, a few generalities emerge. In the nineteenth century, the elite legal world was tight-knit and it was not unusual for relatives of the justices—brothers, uncles, brothers-in-law, nephews—to appear before the Supreme Court. The only example found of a son is Charles L. Woodbury, who argued an admiralty jurisdiction case before his father in 1847: Justice Levi Woodbury ruled against him on circuit in Boston.4 The standards for judicial behavior regarding conflict of interest in that era were, by today’s standards, lax and the presence of a relative rarely triggered a recusal. For example, although Chief Justice Roger B. Taney’s brother-in-law, Baltimore attorney Francis Scott Key, appeared frequently before the Court, Taney almost never recused himself.5 Likewise, when George Ticknor Curtis, a Boston attorney, argued for Dred Scott’s freedom before the high court in 1857, his brother, Justice Benjamin Curtis, did not disqualify himself and cast one of two dissenting votes in favor of George’s client.6 The justices raised no questions about Justice Curtis’s possible bias and praised his brother’s performance.7 The most notable examples of nonrecusal in the nineteenth-century occurred when Justice Stephen J. Field participated in several cases that his brother, preeminent oral advocate David Dudley Field, argued in the wake of the Civil War. David appeared before the Supreme Court bench in several constitutionally significant cases about the imposition of national power over the defeated Confederacy.8 Not only did Justice Field consistently choose to sit, he even wrote the five-to-four decision in Cummings v. Missouri ruling in favor of his brother’s client, a priest who refused to take a loyalty oath to the...

Post-Conflict Land Restitution: The German Experience in Relation to Colombian Law 1448 of 2011

This article compares the legal regimes of land restitution that were enacted in Germany, after World War II and again after the Cold War, with those enacted in Colombia after a decades-long armed conflict, in which many people lost their land. Many parallels can be drawn between these experiences: both countries decided to restitute land in an effective manner but also excluded groups of victims - which was accepted by both countries’ constitutional courts. Important differences emerge regarding the function of restitution for the resolution of the conflict and in its implementation in practice. These differences are owed to the different origins and causes of the conflicts, and to different circumstances prevailing at the time of restitution. It can be clearly shown that post-conflict restitution of land is very context-sensitive. Neither in Germany nor in Colombia were the objectives of the restitution regimes, individual justice and further policy aims, fully achieved. Nevertheless, the considerable extent to which justice was indeed attained by restitution should not be talked down or diminished.

“Peace in the home is peace in the nation”: redemption after the Liberian civil wars

Elma Shaw’s 2008 novel, Redemption Road: The Quest for Peace and Justice in Liberia, provides an important model for thinking through creative possibilities for individual and collective justice in Liberia after the civil wars from 1989 to 2003. This essay engages African women thinkers including Lauretta Ngcobo and Desiree Lewis to expand the frames of Judith Butler’s work on precarity and Jacques Derrida’s model of inheritance. Shaw’s complex female protagonist, Bendu Lewis is a victim and perpetrator of crimes during the war who works to find justice for her community by founding an NGO and reclaiming her lost daughter. I argue that this kind of practice comprises the foundation for an individual and collective “bodily redemption” that turns from a reliance on systemic justice to the female body as a site of individual and collective pain, agency, and healing.

Selecting Talented Migrants: Majority and Minority Perspectives

Many countries seek to specifically attract talented migrants in order to match the needs of national economies. In addition to the well‐known intergroup antagonism between natives and immigrants, such immigration policies targeting talented migrants imply differentiation within the immigrant group, using normative criteria to distinguish desirable and economically useful immigrants from undesirable ones. Based on European Social Survey data (Round 7, N = 9856) comprised of national citizens from six multinational countries, we show that national majorities support individualized, “cherry picking” immigration policies to a greater degree than historical national minorities and that this support is associated with national majorities' stronger sense of identification with the country and its individualistic norms. We thereby conceptualize a novel facet of multiculturalism based on individual justice principles that is rarely at the forefront of research on immigration and multiculturalism.

Between Legal Certainty and Doubt

The Dutch legislature has recently (2012) altered the legislation for post-conviction revision of criminal cases. The legislature aimed to improve the balance between the competing interests of individual justice and the finality of verdicts, by making post-conviction revision more accessible. In this article we describe the current legal framework for revising cases. We also study how the revision procedure functions in practice, by looking at the types and numbers of (successful) requests for further investigations and applications for revision. We observe three challenges in finding the right balance in the revision process in the Netherlands. These challenges concern: 1) the scope of the novum criterion (which is strict), 2) the appropriate role of an advisory committee (the ACAS) in revision cases (functioning too much as a pre-filter for the Supreme Court) and, 3) the difficulties that arise due to requiring a defence council when requesting a revision (e.g., financial burdens).

Human Judgment in algorithmic loops: Individual justice and automated decision‐making

AbstractArguments in favor of tempering algorithmic decision making with human judgment often appeal to concepts and criteria derived from legal philosophy about the nature of law and legal reasoning, arguing that algorithmic systems cannot satisfy them (but humans can). Such arguments often make implicit appeal to the notion that each case needs to be assessed on its own merits, without comparison to or generalization from previous cases. This article argues that this notion of individual justice can only be meaningfully served through human judgment. It distinguishes individual justice and considers how it relates to other dimensions of justice, namely consistency and fairness / nondiscrimination. Finally, it identifies and discussess two challenges: first, how individual justice can be accommodated alongside other dimensions of justice in the socio‐technical contexts of humans‐in‐the‐loop; and second, how inequities in individual justice may result from an uneven application of human judgment in algorithmic contexts.

Neo-classical liberalism, ‘market freedom’, and the right to private property

ABSTRACT Neo-classical liberals aim to offer a more consistent, coherent, and morally ambitious form of liberalism than the traditional classical and social liberal alternatives by providing grounds for a strong commitment to both individual economic liberty and social justice. The key neo-classical liberal claim is that the stringent protection of negative economic liberty does not conflict with, but is rather an essential component of, a commitment to political and social justice. My focus in this article is not on this key neo-classical claim itself, but rather on the conceptually prior question of the meaning and institutional implications of the negative conception of individual economic liberty. In addressing this question I trace some lines of argument which derive from the classical political economy of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Drawing in particular on ideas and arguments developed by the American economist and social critic Henry George, I argue that a fully coherent and defensible conception of negative economic liberty is compatible with a commitment to a strongly conditional form of private landownership, but is incompatible with a commitment to absolute private property in land.

Non-pecuniary damages before the European Court of Human Rights: Forget the victim; it’s all about the state

AbstractThis article studies how the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR, the Court) adjusts damages for human rights violations. The article empirically analyses 13 years of ECtHR’s case law in relation to Articles 2 (right to life), 3 (torture, inhuman and degrading treatment), and 5 (arbitrary detention) of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR, the Convention). The goal is to understand whether the statements made by the Court about the aims pursued through just satisfaction are confirmed in practice. Through an empirical quantitative study relating to non-pecuniary damages, the article analyses the practice of the Court in awarding non-pecuniary damages for human rights violations and compares it to the competing visions of the ECtHR’s function. In particular, I am interested in determining whether just satisfaction is aimed at redressing the suffering of the victim, her circumstances and vulnerability, or whether the focus is more on the respondent state, its conduct and its past human rights record. The answers to these questions will contribute to the debate whether the ECtHR’s role is one of delivering ‘individual justice’ or whether the Court is – as an international court enforcing an international treaty – focused on the ‘state’.

Personalizing the U.S. Supreme Court Through Attention to Individual Justices

ObjectivesWe examine media incentives shaping the nature of U.S. Supreme Court justices’ news coverage and, in particular, how those incentives often lead news outlets to concentrate coverage on particular justices on the Court.MethodsFirst, we examine and model aggregate, over time patterns of news attention devoted to individual justices in the New York Times over the past four decades. Second, we compare and model temporal variation in individual justice coverage relative to generic coverage of the Supreme Court.FindingsThe results suggest that particular justices receive disproportionate attention from the national news media. Further, we demonstrate how individual justices have received a greater proportion of print media coverage over time and in a way that is shaped by internal division among the justices.ConclusionThe findings provide a more complete and nuanced understanding of how national media utilize resources to maximize journalistic impact and personalize the Court as an institution.

Non-Pecuniary Damages Before the European Court of Human Rights: Forget the Victim; It’s All About the State

This paper studies how the European Court of Human Rights adjusts damages for human rights violations. The paper empirically analyses 13 years of ECtHR’s case-law in relation to Articles 2 (right to life), 3 (torture, inhuman and degrading treatment) and 5 (arbitrary detention) of the Convention. The goal is to understand whether the statements made by the Court about the aims pursued through just satisfaction are confirmed in practice. Through an empirical quantitative study relating to non-pecuniary damages, the paper quantitatively analyses the practice of the Court in awarding non-pecuniary damages for human rights violations and compares it to the competing visions of the ECtHR’s function. In particular, I am interested in determining whether just satisfaction is aimed at redressing the suffering of the victim, her circumstances and vulnerability, or whether the focus is more on the respondent state, its conduct and its past human rights record. The answers to these questions will contribute to the debate whether the ECtHR’s role is one of delivering ‘individual justice’ or whether the Court is – as an international court enforcing an international treaty – focused on the ‘state’.

Love's Pursuit: An Approach to Transitional Justice in Ireland

Love's Pursuit:An Approach to Transitional Justice in Ireland Katherine Zappone* (bio) Although commonly associated with processes emerging from conflict, transitional justice offers a way of thinking about the relationship between past, present, and future in Ireland today. When seen as an approach rather than a prescription, transitional justice encapsulates commitment to change, recognition of the indivisibility of past and present, and collective responsibility for past wrongs, present opportunities, and future transformation. Thus, while scholarly literature is now emerging on how the modalities of transitional justice might be adjusted and applied in the Irish context—including the other contributions to this special issue—I instead focus on how and why transitional justice offers new ways of thinking about what we conventionally call "the past," and about how love brings us to experience time in a redemptive fashion. Mindful of the grave violations of human rights and dignity and institutional wrongs done to children in Ireland, I come to this understanding not only as an official with ministerial responsibility but also as a feminist, an advocate for social justice, and a believer in the lasting efficacy of love. From these epistemological standpoints, I view transitional justice as an ethical imperative to deal with the injustice that characterized the first half century of the Irish state and continues to have ramifications in everyday lives today.1 [End Page 315] Given its provenance, the use of the term "transitional justice" to describe the task that now faces us is appropriate. It acknowledges the everyday brutality of the gender injustice that so many have experienced in Ireland and captures an aspiration to transform the country into a republic of substantive equality—while acknowledging the need for modalities of doing justice. This is why, in the first major contribution that I made to Dáil Éireann on the confirmed burial of children's remains in the grounds of a former mother-and-baby home in Tuam in March 2017,2 I signaled my commitment to proceeding with a transitional-justice approach to address Ireland's socalled "historical" abuses: We must listen to, record, and honor the truth of people's experiences. We must commit to the best of our ability to recognizing, recording, and making reparations for the truth…. As a feminist, Independent minister, and Irish woman, I feel a moral and ethical compulsion to reach beyond the legal questions of what happened in Tuam and elsewhere. That compulsion is driven by the need to arrive at this truth. It is only from acceptance of the truth that we can move past it, not by drawing a line under it but by highlighting it and recognizing it as part of our history and part of our national story…. Transitional justice puts survivors and victims at the heart of the process. It commits to pursuing justice through truth. It aims to achieve not only individual justice but also a wider societal transition from more repressive times in order to move from one era to another. Taking a transitional-justice approach means that we will find out and record the truth, ensure accountability, make reparation, undertake institutional reform, and achieve reconciliation.3 In this article I outline my vision for transitional justice in Ireland. This is a vision that, although informed by well-developed legal frameworks, is not solely determined by them. Instead I focus here [End Page 316] primarily on what might be imagined outside of legal and legalistic processes (including statutory or other inquiries). I want to offer here an approach that also emanates from an ethical vision grounded in a feminist commitment to love. In doing so, I gesture toward the desirability of pluralizing approaches without denying that adherence to formal legal processes is a critical part of the broader process of transitional justice. These legal processes are extensively considered in other contributions to this collection,4 and of course we must comply with our obligations under both international human-rights law and national law. We must learn from experiences in other jurisdictions, and we must take seriously the structures, expectations, and norms of doing transitional justice that have developed through international and comparative legal practice. However, what is needed first, I...

Rawls ve Nozick Bireysel Haklar, Tercihler ve Yetenekler Üzerine

Bu çalışmada, John Rawls’un yeniden dağıtım teorisi ile Robert Nozick’in yetkilenme teorisinin bir karşılaştırması sunulacaktır. Bir tarafta Rawls’un hem toplumsal sözleşme teorileri arasındaki yeri bakımından hem de önerdiği yeniden dağıtım teorisi bakımından önemli olan adalet tezi yer alırken; diğer yanda Rawls’a adeta meydan okuyan ve yeniden dağıtım ve sözleşmeyi reddederek bireyi ve bireyin kendi üzerindeki tahakkümünü öne çıkaran Nozick’in yetkilenme teorisi yer alır. İki teoriyi toplumsal işbirliği ve bireycilik, sosyal-dağıtıcı adalet ve bireysel adalet, tercihlere/yeteneklere duyarlılık ve bireysel haklar kavramları bağlamında karşılaştırmak mümkündür. Bu bağlamda, bu çalışmanın amacı iki düşünürün teorilerini hem kendi içlerindeki tutarlılık bakımından değerlendirmek hem de bireysel haklar ve tercihlere/yeteneklere duyarlılık açısından ele almaktır. Bu karşılaştırma iki görüşün toplumun temel yapısını belirleyen kabullerini göstermek ve genel olarak toplumsal birliktelik veya işbirliği ve bireycilik karşıtlığına örnek olması bakımından önemlidir. Aynı zamanda, bu karşılaştırma bireysel hakların ve tercihlerin sınırlarını gösterebilmek açısından da bir öneme sahiptir. Bu amaçla, öncelikle Rawls’un yeniden dağıtım teorisi daha sonra Nozick’in yetkilenme teorisi ele alınacaktır. Son olarak, bireysel hak ve tercihlere/yeteneklere duyarlılık kavramlarının iki düşünürün teorilerindeki yerleri ve kabulleri karşılaştırılarak sunulacaktır. Bu bağlamda, bu konuda görünen karşıtlığın iki teorinin kavramsal arka planları göz önünde bulundurulduğunda tam anlamıyla bir karşıtlık teşkil edip etmediği sorgulanacak ve Nozick’in eleştirilerine karşı Rawls’ın birey ve hak kavramsallaştırmasının tutarlılığı ve uygulanabilirliği savunulacaktır.

Legal Pluralism Approaches and Customary Land Rights Disputes on Indigenous Law Communities of Sentani Papua

The aim is to understand and analyze the approach of legal pluralism in the resolution of land rights disputes. The methodology of the research is normative and empirical juridical methods. The data are collected through primary and secondary legal materials. It conducts als interviews to relevant rerspondents. The data then analyze qualitative. The results of the research show that the existence of a diversity of legal systems (state law, customary law, religious law, and other customs) affects the object of customary land rights disputes in the customary law community Sentani Jayapura Regency Papua Province. The reasons for the choice of Sentani customary law community are: 1) sense of social justice because of the balance values based on the kinship legal system; 2) low cost and / or even no fees; 3) determined and fast trial is not convoluted; and 4) a sense of collective / social justice based on cosmic values not individual justice. The customary land rights disputes itself is determined by: a) patterns of ownership and control of communal customary land to be individual; b) land value from social value to economic value; c) tenuous family relations; d) differences in perceptions between the customary law community and the government of the concept of customary land rights; and e) the source of land disputes due to the history of origin, the system of land ownership and customary land boundaries is unclear because of the regional expansion, administrative boundaries and cultural boundaries at the level Yo kla, village/ Yo Khani, clan-owned lands/Khani Khoselo, service land/Khani Memokhoi, private land/Umbai Khani; f) inherited land, war land, magical land, service land, marital land, forfeit land; and g) historical land, Dutch land, leadership land, cultural customary land boundary to administration, land compensation. The form of dispute over customary land rights, such as 1) the concept of the legal substance of the object of the dispute, 2) the legal structure of the institution that has the function to resolve land tenure and land ownership disputes or land boundaries, 3) the mechanism or procedure in the court and other institutions that can resolve land tenure disputes, and 4) legal culture, legal substance and legal structure. Thus, the form of settlement of customary land disputes over the land of the Sentani customary community through two channels, namely: formal justice (litigation) and non-formal justice (non litigation). The reality is that the indigenous law communities of Sentani are more inclined to the non-litigation mechanism according to reasons of choice of law and sense of justice. Keywords: Legal Pluralism, Land Disputes, Customary Law Communities. DOI : 10.7176/JLPG/91-07 Publication date: November 30 th 2019

Admissibility of Remedies Filed to the Supreme Court of the Republic of Macedonia in Civil Matters

The text provides the genesis of the existing regime for access to the highest judicial body in Macedonia, the particularities of that regime and an assessment on its effects on the judicial system. The authors provide insight into two different modes of revision in Macedonian legal system, namely the ordinary revision and the leave to file a revision, depending on the goals each of these remedies primarily strives to achieve – individual justice in a particular dispute or uniform application of law and harmonisation of the judicial practice. The text also presents the issue of granting a leave to appeal, which has a number of specificities in comparison to its German and Austrian counterparts. Finally, it offers a critical assessment of recent reforms and provides statistical data on the Supreme Court’s caseload in Macedonia.

Access to the Federal Court of Justice in Germany

The text explains the role of the Supreme Court in the civil justice system in Germany with reference to a major reform of civil procedure that was enacted in 2001. The reform of access to the Federal Court of Justice aimed at striking a balance between individual justice and public interest. The author discusses the requirements of admissibility of ordinary appeal and appeal on points of law, which may be filed to the Federal Court of Justice. The German legislator has notably renounced the ratione valoris criterion (monetary threshold) and adopted the requirement of the leave to appeal. The power to restrict access to the Supreme Court was conferred on appellate courts. As a consequence, an appeal on points of law may be lodged only if it is admitted by judex a quo. Although the denial of admission is subject to appeal, the text argues that the reasons for admittance ensure that the public interest in uniform adjudication and clarification of law will be duly served.

Conflicting influences of justice motivations on moral judgments

ABSTRACT Humans are motivated by justice concerns, yet vary in their reactions to observing or experiencing injustice. At a proximate level, approach and avoidance represent core fundamental motivational systems which have been proposed to be involved in two independent moral systems: a prescriptive system responsive to obligations (“shoulds”) and a proscriptive system concerned with prohibitions (“should nots”). It is unclear whether these motivational systems or personal involvement better explain the influence of justice dispositions on moral judgments. To clarify this theoretical argument, two experiments examined how dispositional self-oriented and other-oriented justice sensitivity influence condemnation of prescriptive and proscriptive violations while manipulating perspective between-subject or within-subject. Participants rated the permissibility of everyday moral transgressions, from the perspective of the victim or a neutral observer. In Study 1 (n = 235), self-oriented dispositions increased and other-oriented dispositions decreased the probability of rating prescriptive violations as permissible. Study 2 (n = 468) replicated the effect of other-oriented justice sensitivity. Overall, these results bridge the gap between motivational systems and self-other processing. They suggest that justice sensitivity is better conceptualised as distinct motivations which can exert opposing influences on moral decision-making. Moreover, personal involvement may not be as important as individual justice motivations for explaining everyday moral decision-making.

Multiculturalism in classically liberal societies: Group membership and compatibility between individual and collective justice

The degree to which classical liberal, individualist principles of Western societies are seen as (in)compatible with multiculturalism and minority rights is a key issue in diverse societies. Classical liberalism is grounded in individual justice principles, suggesting that individuals are responsible for their own fate and should be treated according to their personal characteristics, regardless of group membership. Multiculturalism, in turn, is grounded in collective justice principles, recognizing cultural differences and seeking greater equality between groups. The present research investigates how asymmetric group membership in dominant and subordinate groups shapes perceived compatibility between classical liberalism and multiculturalism. A correlational study (N = 141) first shows that cultural minorities perceive greater compatibility between the two justice principles compared to native majorities. A second (N = 202) and third (N = 164) experimental study involving the description of a fictitious society manipulated perspective-taking as a function of social status, cultural origin and numerical size of groups. The findings show that respondents taking the perspective of immigrant groups perceive greater compatibility between classical liberalism and multiculturalism as an abstract ideology compared to a native perspective, and that a low status perspective leads to greater compatibility between classical liberalism and multiculturalism as a concrete policy compared to a high status perspective. Overall, these studies suggest that membership in subordinate groups generally increases perceived compatibility between individual and collective forms of justice. Implications associated with growing civic integrationist policies in Europe are discussed.

The effect of development of ethical leadership on organizational adaptability capacity, education and training organization- case study: ILKHCHI city of Iran

The aim of this study is to examine the impact of ethical leadership on organizational adaptability capacity, the city therefore is education. For this purpose, the factors affecting organizational adaptability in five dimensions based on the individual's orientation, organizational justice, power sharing, ethical conduct, transparency and organizational integration is defined roles. The population of the study, employees of city is therefore, the number of 1407 people, therefore Cochran sampling formula was used to calculate the sample size, the sample includes an estimated 302 people and to select a sample of the statistical population stratified random sampling method is used. The data collected, the questionnaire whose validity and reliability, the samples were analyzed. To analyze the data collected from descriptive and inferential statistical methods were used. Thus, classifying, summarizing and interpreting the data, descriptive statistics and then determine the normality of the data by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov inferential statistics to test hypotheses, and linear regression was used to determine the effect of the test. The results indicate that the hypothesis was confirmed, indicating that the components of the individual's orientation, organizational justice, power sharing, moral guidance, role clarity and organizational integration of organizational adaptability 98 percent of changes in education is explained and the city ILKHCHI it has an effect. the results show that the attention is given to ethical leadership, organizational adaptability capacity increases in education Ilkhchi city. And findings with the findings of Golparvar, colleagues, Abbas-Zadeh and Bvdaqy is consistent.

Naming Names: The Impact of Supreme Court Opinion Attribution on Citizen Assessment of Policy Outcomes

The manner in which political institutions convey their policy outcomes can have important implications for how the public views institutions' policy decisions. This paper explores whether the way in which the U.S. Supreme Court communicates its policy decrees affects how favorably members of the public assess its decisions. Specifically, we investigate whether attributing a decision to the nation's High Court or to an individual justice influences the public's agreement with the Court's rulings. Using an experimental design, we find that when a Supreme Court outcome is ascribed to the institution as a whole, rather than to a particular justice, people are more apt to agree with the policy decision. We also find that identifying the gender of the opinion author affects public agreement under certain conditions. Our findings have important implications for how public support for institutional policymaking operates, as well as the dynamics of how the Supreme Court manages to accumulate and maintain public goodwill.