Individual Income Tax Research Articles

Personal income tax: Reforms in Russia and their impact on the income inequality

The article explores the problem of income inequality of the population in the con? text of the income taxation. Methodologically, the study relies on the theoretical propositions of monetary inequality and individual income taxation. The research methods include structural-logical analysis, comparison, identification of cause-and-effect relationships, and data ranking. The author generalises about the methods for measuring the level of monetary inequality of incomes, determines their specifics and reliability. The paper presents the results of calculations of the income inequality level in the Russian Federation against the background of the configuration and stratification alternatives of income inequality in other countries. The researcher concludes that the level of income inequality in the Russian Federation is higher than in the European countries and lower than in the BRICS countries; the gap between the richest one percent and the middle class in Russia is the largest in the world, while there is no extreme poverty. The analysis of the individual income taxation in the OECD countries reveals that the majority of the countries adopt a progressive scale with 2–19 schedules and non-taxable amounts. The paper proposes introducing in the Russian Federation a progressive personal income tax scale consisting of 4–6 schedules with a maximum rate of about 40 % for rich and super-rich taxpayers. Simultaneously, a standard tax deduction in the amount of at least two subsistence rates should be established. The findings of the study of? fer prospects for further reforming of income taxation in Russia to stimulate economic growth.

Estimating the Distributional Implications of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act

This paper provides a distributional analysis of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (TCJA), with implications for American households from changes to the individual income and corporate income taxes. We model the impact on average tax rates and after-tax incomes using tax records data from the 2011 Internal Revenue Service public use file and the open-source Tax-Calculator microsimulation model. We find that the effects of the TCJA vary widely across and within income deciles depending upon family structure, the choice of equivalence scales, and whether the impacts are short term or long term. When appropriately accounting for differences in tax unit size, through 2025 the individual income tax changes of the TCJA appear progressive. Failing to account for these differences obscures these progressive effects because larger families benefiting from the expansion of the child tax credit have higher incomes. Combining individual income and business tax provisions in the static scenario, the TCJA is likely to result in short-term increases in after-tax incomes across all deciles, with longer-term decreases for the lower-income households if the individual income tax provisions are allowed to expire. Even in the short run, the gains are significantly lower for those below the top decile. In the long-run dynamic scenario, the TCJA appears regressive, with income gains skewed toward the top.

U.S. Individual Income Tax Return Simulated Data: A Methodology

ABSTRACTThis paper proposes and tests a methodology for the development of simulated data for individual income tax returns in the U.S., enabling students of taxation and accounting, and other interested parties, to examine changes to the tax code, the effects of tax planning alternatives, and conduct repeated experimental testing on tax return data. The simulation draws insight from statistical and economic literature into the stochastic nature of certain line items from the tax returns, using the information provided by the Internal Revenue Service's (IRS) Statistics of Income (SOI) program. The simulation produced data for 147,000 tax returns, representing ∼1 percent of the population of filed tax returns, and was then validated against the results of the summary data provided by IRS SOI. Our simulated data closely matched the number and combined dollar value of the IRS SOI summary data at the AGI, state, and filing status levels.

Demographics associated with US healthcare disparities are exacerbated by the telemedicine surge during the COVID-19 pandemic

Introduction As coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) hit the US, there was widespread and urgent implementation of telemedicine programs nationwide without much focus on the impact on patient populations with known existing healthcare disparities. To better understand which populations cannot access telemedicine during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic, this study aims to demographically describe and identify the most important demographic predictors of telemedicine visit completion in an urban health system. Methods Patient de-identified demographics and telemedicine visit data (N = 362,764) between March 1, 2020 and October 31, 2020 were combined with Internal Revenue Service 2018 individual income tax data by postal code. Descriptive statistics and mixed effects logistic regression were used to determine impactful patient predictors of telemedicine completion, while adjusting for clustering at the clinical site level. Results Many patient-specific demographics were found to be significant. Descriptive statistics showed older patients had lower rates of completion (p < 0.001). Also, Hispanic patients had statistically significant lower rates (p < 0.001). Overall, minorities (racial, ethnic, and language) had decreased odds ratios of successful telemedicine completion compared to the reference. Discussion While telemedicine use continues to be critical during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic, entire populations struggle with access—possibly widening existing disparities. These results contribute large datasets with significant findings to the limited research on telemedicine access and can help guide us in improving telemedicine disparities across our health systems and on a wider scale.

PENERAPAN BENFORD'S LAW UNTUK MENDETEKSI DUGAAN KETIDAKPATUHAN MATERIAL PADA SPT TAHUNAN PPH ORANG PRIBADI

This study aims to examine whether the Individual Income Tax Return data set conforms to the Benford's Law pattern and to examine whether there are indications of material noncompliance in that data set based on the application of Benford's Law. This research is a quantitative research. The data source in this study is the taxation database owned by the Directorate General of Taxes (DGT), Ministry of Finance. The results of this study indicate that most of the Individual Income Tax Return data set variables conform to Benford's Law pattern and there are indications of material noncompliance in that data set. Tax officer, in this case account representatives and tax auditors are expected to be able to use the results of this study to carry out further analysis of the numerical class in the Individual Income Tax Return data set that is not appropriate and deviates from Benford's Law pattern. DGT, as a tax institution, is expected to consider the use of Benford's Law to assist the taxpayer supervision and inspection process.

State Individual Income Tax Conformity in Practice: Evidence from the Tax Cuts & Jobs Act

Nearly every state incorporates the federal tax code into its individual income tax system. This widespread incorporation has many supporters and has been justified on the basis that it is necessary in order for states to have a simple and efficient tax system. This article explores the practical effects and dynamics of state tax conformity through a novel examination of how states that tightly conformed to the federal individual income tax responded to the recently enacted Tax Cuts and Jobs Act which, for these states, would have both raised state taxes and changed the distribution of state tax burdens. The study reinforces concerns raised in both the theoretical and economic literature regarding conformity’s enhancement of revenue volatility and likelihood of distorting state legislative decision-making, while adding several new observations of conformity’s impact. The study illustrates that conformity imposes significant time constraints on state legislatures, conformity causes not only revenue shocks, but tax policy shocks, and even where state revenue is kept constant following a federal change, conformity may cause relative state tax burdens to change. Based on these findings, the article concludes by offering suggestions for how states can move past the idea that extensive conformity with the federal tax code is required and instead design an individual income tax system that is simple, efficient, and enhances a citizen’s relationship to the state.

THE IMPACT OF STATE TAX POLICY ON THE COMPETITIVENESS OF SMALL BUSINESS ENTITIES IN UKRAINE

The article explores the theoretical and methodological foundations of small business as a factor of economic growth of the country in the modern market economy. Legislative criteria for distinguishing small businesses from other business entities have been defined. Statistics on the main indicators of small business entities in Ukraine during 2010-2019 are provided. It has been determined that small businesses in Ukraine occupy the main share. At the same time, their share in the structure of total volumes of products sold, created by added value and the number of employed workers is also significant. The impact of the state's tax policy on stimulating development and improving the competitiveness of small business entities in the country has been established. The concept of reforming the state tax policy in order to improve the competitiveness of small businesses in Ukraine has been proposed, which provides for the reform of corporate income tax, a single tax, individual income tax, value-added tax and the abolition of the military levy.

Agglomeration and State Personal Income Taxes: Time to Apportion (With Critical Commentary on New Hampshire’s Complaint Against Massachusetts)

The Supreme Court is currently considering granting certiorari in New Hampshire v. Massachusetts. At issue is the State of New Hampshire’s (and its amici’s) claim that Massachusetts’s insistence on applying its income tax to residents of New Hampshire, who once commuted to work in Massachusetts but now work for the same businesses remotely in New Hampshire because of the COVID-19 pandemic, violates the Due Process Clause and dormant Commerce Clause. The claim is simple and seductive: if these New Hampshire residents barely leave their own homes, much less their state, how can it accord with due process for Massachusetts to tax them? In this short colloquium essay, I make the following points about the merits of this case. (I think the case should be dismissed on procedural grounds, but believe the merits are important and will eventually be reached on a similar fact pattern.)1. The plaintiffs are essentially arguing for physical presence as a predicate for individual income taxation. To the extent that the argument is that physical presence is currently required by the Due Process Clause or the dormant Commerce Clause, I argue that contention is wrong.2. I also argue that a physical presence rule should not be created. This is a case where common sense intuitions about work and the creation of value can lead one astray. Here, what intuition misses is the importance of agglomeration economics. The residents of New Hampshire massed on the border with Massachusetts (and paying higher housing prices to do so) are not preparing for an invasion. Rather, they are rationally choosing to live in the Greater Boston area because of the professional and cultural amenities that the area offers and for which the state of Massachusetts can reasonably ask them to contribute. 3. The plaintiffs make a similar argument about apportionment, namely that the Massachusetts’s regulations fail fair apportionment. Again, as based on current law, this argument is incorrect (and should remain so). Apportionment is judged by a reasonableness standard and here what Massachusetts is doing satisfies that standard. It has long been acceptable for states that are the source of an employee’s income because that is where the employee works to consider itself the source of all of that income. All Massachusetts has done is argue that the usual source rule should apply during this temporary disruption. Similarly, all New York’s convenience of the employer rule argues is that the usual source rule of thumb should not be disturbed unless the employer is the driving force behind the employee working elsewhere.4. There is a difference between what the Constitution permits and what would be best as a matter of policy. If, as seems likely, there will be more remote work in the future, then the traditional all-or-nothing rule of thumb as to the source of individual income should be reconsidered. In particular, I argue, it is appropriate for states to shift to apportioning the income of individuals just like they currently do for the income of businesses.

How Much Do Outside Options Matter? The Effect of Subsidized Health Insurance on Social Security Disability Insurance Benefit Receipt

New government health insurance programs may affect participation in existing safety-net benefits that provide health insurance as a secondary aim. We examine whether the outside options for health insurance made available by the Affordable Care Act affected Social Security Disability Insurance (DI) application decisions. Using the universe of U.S. individual income tax records spanning 2007-2016, we first estimate the effect of Medicaid expansions using a state difference-in-differences identification strategy, but find small and statistically insignificant estimates. However, when we estimate the effect of being eligible for high vs. low Marketplace subsidies based on geography, we find some evidence consistent with subsidies increasing DI claiming among those with prior access to Employer Sponsored Insurance, and decreasing DI claiming otherwise. Overall, we find suggestive evidence that outside options for health insurance do matter, though magnitudes are small and results are statistically precise only for Marketplace coverage.

Behavioral effects of tax withholding on tax compliance: Implications for information initiatives

Using a theory-driven experiment with working adult participants and deliberate tax framing, this paper reports on the effects of tax withholding choices on subsequent individual income tax reporting behavior. We find reporting increases with the level of taxes over-withheld, and decreases with taxes under-withheld, with the latter effect being much larger in magnitude. We explore two information programs designed to influence social norms: compliance information specific to one's income class, and information related to the fairness of the tax system. Increasing either the compliance norm or the fairness measure increases tax reporting but only information on fairness affects the withholding choice. A third information program – a service that resolves uncertainty over tax liability – offsets the undesirable effects of tax under-withholding on reported liability when acquired. Using information from an extensive questionnaire, we find several interesting associations between decision-making in the experiment and the prior tax filing experiences and behaviors of participants.

Using Tableau to Analyze the Effects of Tax Code Changes: A Teaching Case for Tax and AIS Courses

ABSTRACTThis teaching case enables taxation and accounting information systems (AIS) students to use data analytics software to analyze a large dataset of simulated federal individual income tax returns to identify possible effects of tax changes on different categories of individual taxpayers. Tax return data provided for the case is a large sample that represents the population of U.S. tax returns filed, created from a simulation using distributions based on prevailing economic theories about income and most recent tax return filing statistics available from Internal Revenue Service (IRS) Statistics of Income (SOI). Students will learn to: (1) develop foundational skills and knowledge related to data analytics and how those skills can be used to visualize data to make it more meaningful, (2) demonstrate an understanding of Internal Revenue Code as it pertains to individual taxation, and (3) demonstrate knowledge of how Internal Revenue Code affects different types of filers.

Ten Thousand Commandments 2021: An Annual Snapshot of the Federal Regulatory State

Ten Thousand Commandments 2021: An Annual Snapshot of the Federal Regulatory State

ФОРМАЛІЗАЦІЯ ПРИЧИННО-НАСЛІДКОВОГО ЗВ’ЯЗКУ ПОДАТКОВИХ РОЗРИВІВ ЗА ПОДАТКОМ НА ДОХОДИ ФІЗИЧНИХ ОСІБ ІЗ МАКРОЕКОНОМІЧНОЮ СТАБІЛЬНІСТЮ

At the present stage of organizing social and economic relations between economic subjects of different levels, one of the threats to economic security and macroeconomic stability of the country is a high level of shadow economy. In the context of the investigation of the tax channel of shadowing the economy, as one of the most common mechanisms for hiding the income by economic agents, the main catalysts for shadowing are the growth of the tax burden, regulatory pressure and a low level of social security of the population. The increase in the tax burden serves as an impetus for the transition of taxpayers to the shadow at the same speed with which they leave it, with its decrease. These processes stimulate shadow operations in the economy and the growth of funds operating outside the formal sector. The article develops a methodological approach to assessing tax gaps on individual income tax, and provides a comparative analysis of their volumes in the context of Ukraine and European countries. In assessing the tax gaps for individual income tax, it is proposed to consider the size of the average wage per employee employed in the formal sector of the economy. Based on the results of empirical calculations, conclusions about a significant increase in the volume of tax gaps in Ukraine and their significant excess compared to the world average have been made. The causal relationship of tax gaps with the country's GDP is investigated, their negative impact on the level of macroeconomic stability of the country is substantiated. It is concluded that significant volumes of tax evasion reduce the country's GDP and are accompanied by an increase in the level of shadowing of the economy. It is ultimately leads to an increase in the budget deficit. It has been confirmed that a high volume of tax gaps creates preconditions for an increase in the scale of shadow activity, a deterioration in indicators of the country's macroeconomic stability. The necessity of improving and reviewing the tools for the prevention of shadow financial transactions and the formation of tax gaps has been substantiated.

Nastanak i računovodstvena evidencija digitalne imovine

The Law on Digital Assets (here in after' the Law) entered into force at the end of 2020, but due to a six-month postponement its implementation started on 31.06.2021. In the meantime, the National Bank of Serbia and the Securities Commission (as the two main regulatory authorities established by the Law) have adopted 19 secondary legislation acts in the form of decisions and bylaws. With reference to that, the Ministry of Finance adopted amendments to the Law on Corporate Income Tax and Law on Individual Income Tax regarding taxation of digital assets transactions. In addition to regulation of the legal framework and taxation, this issue also requires regulation of the accounting method, i.e. recognition and measurement of digital assets - which is the topic of this paper.

Прогресивне оподаткування індивідуальних доходів в ісламських країнах

The economic results of the development of Muslim countries have raised the question of the existence of an increasingly focused Islamic financial and tax model. Taxes in the Islamic economic model provide an implicit link in the relations between the state and individuals, thus determining the limits of conditioned freedom and mutual obligations. The article is aimed at identifying the indicative features of progressive taxation of individual income in some Islamic countries. The research results show that Islamic countries are characterized by the unity of religion (faith) and such elements of the social system as the organization of power, as well as family, economic and other relations. The boundaries of the personal and the public, the individual and the national are transparent and strictly regulated. The peculiarities of the Tax Institute in Muslim countries, terms of taxation and tax usage rules are considered. It is proven that nowadays approaches to taxation in Islamic countries are diverse. It is determined that progressive taxation of individual income is widely used in Turkey, Pakistan, Tunisia, Indonesia, Nigeria, and other countries, and partly in Saudi Arabia; "tax heavens" are typical for the UAE, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, and Omani; proportional taxation is still used in Malaysia, Sudan, and Kazakhstan. The main types of taxes in Muslim countries are analyzed, their evolution is studied. Modern foci of progressive taxation of individual incomes in specific Muslim countries are revealed. The advantages of the Islamic financial model in terms of tax policy modernization and compliance with tax discipline, unconditional fulfillment of obligations and concluded agreements are identified. It is substantiated that using some elements of the progressive tax scale applied in the practice of Islamic finance can prove useful in a number of areas, providing budgetary and social balance in the "corridor of opportunities", bringing mutual responsibility of citizens and the state in fulfilling obligations, creating an annuity and mutually beneficial economic behavior pattern. It is proved that the progressive tax withdrawal of a part of large incomes will give a restrictive and restraining result of control over their redistribution in the public interest, as the socio-economic behavior of individuals, their powers and responsibilities must be balanced

Ключевые вопросы налогообложения самозанятых в странах СНГ

The present article examines the prospect of forming a special chapter of the Model Tax Code for the CIS countries, “Tax on Professional Income.” The relevance of this issue is explained by two circumstances—first, a growing share of self-employed citizens, among whom a significant part work outside the legal framework; and second, the possible labor migration of this category of payers between the CIS countries. As a consequence, both factors lead to the need for the formation of common approaches to taxation of self-employed individuals in the member states, codified in the form of a chapter in the Model Tax Code. The purpose of the study is to determine the key elements of the tax on professional income in the CIS countries, which should be indicated in the CIS Model Tax Code as the basic conditions and principles of taxation of self-employed citizens. In accordance with the goal, the author analyzed the tax and labor legislation of the CIS member states, as well as the associated member, the Republic of Turkmenistan. A review of legal acts showed that there is no single conceptual apparatus (“self-employment,” “selfemployed”) in the analyzed countries. This fact prevents the development of a unified approach to determining the circle of taxpayers within the special regime. National legislation has developed three approaches to taxing the self-employed. The first approach is that the self-employed are singled out into an independent category of payers with the presence of the corresponding features of taxation. The second approach consists in the absence of specific conditions of taxation in the presence of a standard individual income tax levied on a general basis. The third approach involves the formation in the construct of a number of taxes and special tax regimes of specific conditions for the taxation of the self-employed. At the end of the article, recommendations are given on the content of a special chapter of the Model Tax Code, taking into account the peculiarities of economic and social development, the state of tax administration, and the “tax” susceptibility of the population of the CIS countries. As an approach to taxation of the self-employed, it is proposed to apply the first one cited, based on the allocation of an independent category of payers.

Certain aspects of individual income tax

The personal income tax is the main budget-forming tax, which plays a significant role in the redistribution of personal income and ensuring budget adequacy. Due to this tax, the state has the opportunity to influence the level of income and savings of citizens, it is a social regulator. The objective of the paper is to form a mechanism for collecting personal income tax in Ukraine and to study the fiscal efficiency of personal income tax and to determine the main directions of personal income tax reform. The paper considers the mechanism of personal income tax collection, which is based on the Tax Code of Ukraine and the main elements of the taxation system. It is proved that the tax system of Ukraine is characterized by instability, fiscal orientation with a limited and poorly developed regulatory function. The foreign experience of personal income taxation, tax rates and features of taxation is investigated in this paper. In foreign countries, tax rates are progressive. First of all, it should be noted that wages make up most of the income of individuals, and sometimes it is the only source of income. Taking into account the fact that Ukraine does not apply progressive personal income tax rates, this causes social injustice. It is proposed to use the concept of marginal income and not to tax income in the form of wages in the amount of the minimum amount set for each year. One of the important aspects of reforming the tax system of Ukraine is the introduction of a single reporting on personal income tax and a single social contribution filed by tax agent. It is proposed to declare income and disclose information about the property status of all individuals for the previous year. This will help to control and compare the payment of personal income tax with other tax reports and fill the state budget. Establishing a tax culture of taxpayers and their cooperation with fiscal officials requires some time, during which they must actively carry out explanatory work by fiscal officials and implement a system of preventive measures against tax evasion or concealment of income, and then apply a strict system penalties to the payer. According to this system the payer is unprofitable to hide income, as the fine exceeds its size. These measures will not only ensure the implementation of the regulatory but also the fiscal function of the tax.

Reforming the Individual Income Tax in Spain

Can the Spanish government generate more tax revenue by making personal income taxes more progressive? To answer this question, we build a life-cycle economy with uninsurable labor productivity risk and endogenous labor supply. Individuals face progressive taxes on labor and capital incomes and proportional taxes that capture social security, corporate income, and consumption taxes. Our answer is yes, but not much. A reform that increases labor income taxes for individuals who earn more than the mean labor income and reduces taxes for those who earn less than the mean labor income generates a small additional revenue. The revenue from labor income taxes is maximized at an effective marginal tax rate of 51.6% (38.9%) for the richest 1% (5%) of individuals, versus 46.3% (34.7%) in the benchmark economy. The increase in revenue from labor income taxes is only 0.82%, while the total tax revenue declines by 1.55%. The higher progressivity is associated with lower aggregate labor supply and capital. As a result, the government collects higher taxes from a smaller economy. The total tax revenue is higher if marginal taxes are raised only for the top earners.The increase, however, must be substantial and cover a large segment of top earners. The rise in tax collection from a 3 percentage points increase on the top 1% is just 0.09%. A 10 percentage points increase on the top 10% of earners (those who earn more than €41,699) raises total tax revenue by 2.81%.

The Appropriate Roles for Equity and Efficiency in a Progressive Individual Income Tax

Increased focus on economic efficiency in formulating tax policy, at the expense of achieving equity, has resulted in decreased rate progressivity in our individual income tax. This decrease has exacerbated inequality.&#x0D; There are several explanations for the intense focus on efficiency and reduced emphasis on equity. Predictions of efficiency gains from low individual income tax rates appear more certain than equity gains from progressive tax rates. Efficiency gains seem measurable, while equity gains appear intangible and unquantifiable. In addition, distributive justice, which underlies and shapes tax equity, exists in many abstract forms, some of which may not require progressive tax rates.&#x0D; This Article argues, however, that the emphasis on efficiency is misplaced. Inequality imposes measurable costs on the health, social well-being, and intergenerational mobility of our citizens, as well as on our democratic process. This is corroborated by significant empirical analysis.&#x0D; In contrast, empirical analysis shows that anticipated efficiency gains from low individual tax rates are speculative. A consensus exists among economists that taxes within the historical range of rates in the United States have little or no impact on labor supply. Moreover, economists cannot agree whether the myriad empirical studies on savings indicate that progressive tax rates decrease, increase, or have no impact on savings in the United States.&#x0D; The clear harms arising from inequality and the uncertain harms arising from progressive tax rates, strongly support always giving equity at least equal weight with efficiency in formulating tax policy. But given the high level of inequality in the United States and the currently low and flat tax rate structure, equity should be given more weight than efficiency at this time. Emphasizing equity in a progressive individual income tax will contribute to the health and economic mobility of our citizens, as well as the stability of our democracy.

The Influence of Differences in Income Tax Rules on Income Tax Growth in the Private Tax Taxes and Acceptance of Tax Income in the Office of Jember Pratama Tax Service

The purpose of this study was to determine the different effects of changes in Non-Taxable Income (PTKP) regulations on the growth rate of the number of Individual Taxpayers (WPOP) and income tax article 21 (PPh 21) in the Jember KPP. The data used in this study are secondary data collected from KPP Pratama Jember period 2008-2018. Data processing methods using Descriptive Statistics, Analysis Of Variance (ANOVA) and Multivariate Analysis Of Variance (MANOVA) with SPSS analysis tool version 20. The results of the study show that there are different effects of changes in Non-Taxable Income (PTKP) significantly impacting the growth rate Personal Taxpayers (WPOP) because the rate of growth is increasing and the level of income tax article 21 (PPh 21) because the amount of revenue is increasing.&#x0D; Keywords: PTKP, WPOP, Income Tax 21.