Individual Heat Pumps Research Articles

Long-term forecasting of hourly electricity load: Identification of consumption profiles and segmentation of customers

Data for aggregated hourly electricity demand shows systematic variations over the day, week, and seasons, and forecasting of aggregated hourly electricity load has been the subject of many studies. With hourly metering of individual customers, data for individual consumption profiles is available. Using this data and analysing the case of Denmark, we show that consumption profiles for categories of customers are equally systematic but very different for distinct categories, that is, distinct categories of customers contribute differently to the aggregated electricity load profile. Therefore, to model and forecast long-term changes in the aggregated electricity load profile, we identify profiles for different categories of customers and link these to projections of the aggregated annual consumption by categories of customers. Long-term projection of the aggregated load is important for future energy system planning, and the hourly load profile is an important input to energy system models that serves this purpose. In particular, these models often assume an unchanged hourly load profile (although the level may change). In contrast, our model suggests that the hourly load profile also changes as the shares of consumption by categories of customers change and new consumption technologies such as electrical vehicles and (for Denmark in particular) individual heat pumps are introduced.

Wind power integration using individual heat pumps – Analysis of different heat storage options

Significant installations of individual heat pumps are expected in future energy systems due to their economic competitiveness. This case study of the Danish energy system in 2020 with 50% wind power shows that individual heat pumps and heat storages can contribute to the integration of wind power. Heat accumulation tanks and passive heat storage in the construction are investigated as two alternative storage options in terms of their ability to increase wind power utilisation and to provide cost-effective fuel savings. Results show that passive heat storage can enable equivalent to larger reductions in excess electricity production and fuel consumption than heat accumulation tanks. Moreover, passive heat storage is found to be significantly more cost-effective than heat accumulation tanks. In terms of reducing fuel consumption of the energy system, the installation of heat pumps is the most important step. Adding heat storages only moderately reduces the fuel consumption. Model development has been made to facilitate a technical optimisation of individual heat pumps and heat storages in integration with the energy system.

Energy Analysis and Optimization of a Water-Loop Heat Pump System

A water-loop heat pump system consists of a set of water-source heat pumps that are connected with a closed-loop water network, which allows heat to be injected into or extracted out of the loop water. Such a configuration is able to meet simultaneous heating and cooling demands with a heat recovery capability. This paper analyzes the impact of loop water temperature on energy performance of individual heat pumps and the whole system, demonstrates that there exists a unique loop water temperature that minimizes overall power consumption of the configuration under discussion, and proposes a strategy to find the optimal temperature, which can be implemented in a real-time application. Simulations have been conducted to verify that a significant energy savings can be achieved over conventional practice.

LCA-based environmental assessment of the use and maintenance of heating and ventilation systems in Dutch dwellings

Buildings contribute significantly to the human-induced environmental burden. This comes not only from construction and demolition but also from activities throughout the operational phase – building maintenance and energy use for climate control. This paper describes how life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology can be applied to quantitatively assess the environmental performance of the use and maintenance of heating and ventilation systems. The studied climate systems include individual non-condensing boilers, condensing boilers and heat pumps on exhaust air for heating and hot tap water combined with either collective mechanical exhaust ventilation or individual balanced ventilation with heat recovery. This study shows that a heat pump causes the highest environmental burden of all the assessed climate systems due to the electricity needed for operation, high material content of the system and the refrigerant used. If the electricity used by the heat pump is generated fully by local photovoltaic cells, environmental performance will improve, but not for all environmental impact categories. Climate systems that reduce energy demand for heating, such as ventilation with heat recovery, will reduce the environmental impact related to energy use for space heating. However, if the electricity used to operate the system increases, along with the material content of the systems and distribution networks, other environmental impact categories than those related to space heating will also increase. Finally, maintenance frequency and related transportation of maintenance workers have a marginal effect on total environmental impact.

The role of district heating in future renewable energy systems

Abstract Based on the case of Denmark, this paper analyses the role of district heating in future Renewable Energy Systems. At present, the share of renewable energy is coming close to 20 per cent. From such point of departure, the paper defines a scenario framework in which the Danish system is converted to 100 per cent Renewable Energy Sources (RES) in the year 2060 including reductions in space heating demands by 75 per cent. By use of a detailed energy system analysis of the complete national energy system, the consequences in relation to fuel demand, CO 2 emissions and cost are calculated for various heating options, including district heating as well as individual heat pumps and micro CHPs (Combined Heat and Power). The study includes almost 25 per cent of the Danish building stock, namely those buildings which have individual gas or oil boilers today and could be substituted by district heating or a more efficient individual heat source. In such overall perspective, the best solution will be to combine a gradual expansion of district heating with individual heat pumps in the remaining houses. Such conclusion is valid in the present systems, which are mainly based on fossil fuels, as well as in a potential future system based 100 per cent on renewable energy.

Eliminating acoustical barriers to learning in classrooms—Case study of window ventilator noise

Room ventilation systems have long been a major cause of noise in classrooms. The recent drive for energy efficiency has motivated schools to partner with utility companies to replace aging central HVAC systems with individual room heat pump window ventilator units for space heating and cooling. An unfortunate consequence is that these window ventilators are significant noise sources. A typical window unit can produce 70 dB(A), or more, at 1 m. Clearly, this is unacceptable. Either ventilator manufacturers must commit to reduce unit noise output by at least 30 dB, or school designers must abandon the wall ventilator option in favor of quiet central HVAC installations.

High temperature solar heated seasonal storage system for low temperature heating of buildings

A preliminary study of a solar-heated low-temperature space-heating system with seasonal storage in the ground has been performed. The system performance has been evaluated using the simulation models TRNSYS and MINSUN together with the ground storage module DST. The study implies an economically feasible design for a total annual heat demand of about 2500 MWh. The main objective was to perform a study on Anneberg, a planned residential area of 90 single-family houses with 1080 MWh total heat demand. The suggested heating system with a solar fraction of 60% includes 3000 m 2 of solar collectors but electrical heaters to produce peak heating. The floor heating system was designed for 30°C supply temperature. The temperature of the seasonal storage unit, a borehole array in crystalline rock of 60,000 m 3, varies between 30 and 45°C over the year. The total annual heating costs, which include all costs (including capital, energy, maintenance etc.) associated with the heating system, were investigated for three different systems: solar heating (1000 SEK MWh −1), small-scale district heating (1100 SEK MWh −1) and individual ground-coupled heat pumps (920 SEK MWh −1). The heat loss from the Anneberg storage system was 42% of the collected solar energy. This heat loss would be reduced in a larger storage system, so a case where the size of the proposed solar heating system was enlarged by a factor of three was also investigated. The total annual cost of the solar heating system was reduced by about 20% to about 800 SEK MWh −1, which is lower than the best conventional alternative.

5476071 Pressurized fluidized bed boiler

A new HVAC system is proposed and studied. The plant is equipped with a reciprocating i.c. gas engine which produces electric energy with heat recovery from the jacket water heat and the exhaust. The electric energy serves the lighting and emf for the building and individual room reversible air-water heat pumps that mainly satisfy sensible cooling and a fraction of the winter heating load. An open-cycle absorption system, which treats the primary air, meets the summer latent load and year round ventilation requirements. In winter, the system operates as an open-cycle heat pump. The regeneration of the sorbent is obtained by the i.c. engine heat recovery. The proposed system is analysed by comparing its performance with a traditional plant, both in summer and winter mode.

A new HVAC system based on cogeneration by an i.c. engine

A new HVAC system is proposed and studied. The plant is equipped with a reciprocating i.c. gas engine which produces electric energy with heat recovery from the jacket water heat and the exhaust. The electric energy serves the lighting and emf for the building and individual room reversible air-water heat pumps that mainly satisfy sensible cooling and a fraction of the winter heating load. An open-cycle absorption system, which treats the primary air, meets the summer latent load and year round ventilation requirements. In winter, the system operates as an open-cycle heat pump. The regeneration of the sorbent is obtained by the i.c. engine heat recovery. The proposed system is analysed by comparing its performance with a traditional plant, both in summer and winter mode.

Start-stop control strategies for heat recovery in multi-zone water-loop heat pump systems

A study is made to determine the energy saving potential of a start—stop controlled water-loop heat pump (WLHP) system. The physical model consists of individual heat pumps for each zone, a two-pipe water-loop system (with and without a storage tank), a boiler and an evaporative cooler. The overall system consists of four input energy controllers and an equal number of mass flow rate controllers. A simple start-stop control strategy for the system is developed. Results showing the typical daily operation of the system under changing heating and cooling loads are presented. A method for selecting the appropriate limits for loop water temperature which results in energy savings is given.

The Case for Cases

The Community Annual Energy Storage System (CASES) is described as a thermal utility concept which stores waste summer heat for winter use and waste winter cold for summer air conditioning. As a concept, CASES can be demonstrated only by simulation, although the equipment is available. Both warm and cooled water are available continuously for each building in the community through a network of two pipes. Short-term storage for surplus hot and cold water is provided with a central facility consisting of two impoundment basins of the same size. Either aquifer or ice storage can be used for long-term storage. The system's components consist of uninsulated pipelines and individual heat pumps, which would be rented to the building occupants. CASES proponents project an 80% saving of the energy used for heating and cooling a community and a significant leveling of peak loads. A summary of monthly cost projections and efficiency shows the greatest savings will occur during the summer months.

A high-flux low-temperature solar collector

A preliminary study of a solar-heated low-temperature space-heating system with seasonal storage in the ground has been performed. The system performance has been evaluated using the simulation models TRNSYS and MINSUN together with the ground storage module DST. The study implies an economically feasible design for a total annual heat demand of about 2500 MWh. The main objective was to perform a study on Anneberg, a planned residential area of 90 single-family houses with 1080 MWh total heat demand. The suggested heating system with a solar fraction of 60% includes 3000 m2 of solar collectors but electrical heaters to produce peak heating. The floor heating system was designed for 30°C supply temperature. The temperature of the seasonal storage unit, a borehole array in crystalline rock of 60,000 m3, varies between 30 and 45°C over the year. The total annual heating costs, which include all costs (including capital, energy, maintenance etc.) associated with the heating system, were investigated for three different systems: solar heating (1000 SEK MWh−1), small-scale district heating (1100 SEK MWh−1) and individual ground-coupled heat pumps (920 SEK MWh−1). The heat loss from the Anneberg storage system was 42% of the collected solar energy. This heat loss would be reduced in a larger storage system, so a case where the size of the proposed solar heating system was enlarged by a factor of three was also investigated. The total annual cost of the solar heating system was reduced by about 20% to about 800 SEK MWh−1, which is lower than the best conventional alternative.