Individual Ginsenosides Research Articles

Impact of Sodium Silicate Supplemented, IR-Treated Panax Ginseng on Extraction Optimization for Enhanced Anti-Tyrosinase and Antioxidant Activity: A Response Surface Methodology (RSM) Approach.

Ginseng has long been widely used for its therapeutic potential. In our current study, we investigated the impact of abiotic stress induced by infrared (IR) radiations and sodium silicate on the upregulation of antioxidant and anti-tyrosinase levels, as well as the total phenolic and total flavonoid contents of the Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) variety Yeonpoong. The RSM-based design was used to optimize ultrasonic-assisted extraction time (1-3 h) and temperature (40-60 °C) for better anti-tyrosinase activity and improved antioxidant potential. The optimal extraction results were obtained with a one-hour extraction time, at a temperature of 40 °C, and with a 1.0 mM sodium silicate treatment. We recorded maximum anti-tyrosinase (53.69%) and antioxidant (40.39%) activities when RSM conditions were kept at 875.2 mg GAE/100 g TPC, and 3219.58 mg catechin/100 g. When 1.0 mM sodium silicate was added to the media and extracted at 40 °C for 1 h, the highest total ginsenoside content (368.09 mg/g) was recorded, with variations in individual ginsenosides. Ginsenosides Rb1, Rd, and F2 were significantly affected by extraction temperature, while Rb2 and Rc were influenced by the sodium silicate concentration. Moreover, ginsenoside F2 increased with the sodium silicate treatment, while the Rg3-S content decreased. Interestingly, higher temperatures favored greater ginsenoside diversity while sodium silicate impacted PPD-type ginsenosides. It was observed that the actual experimental values closely matched the predicted values, and this agreement was statistically significant at a 95% confidence level. Our findings suggest that the application of IR irradiation in hydroponic systems can help to improve the quality of ginseng sprouts when supplemented with sodium silicate in hydroponic media. Optimized extraction conditions using ultrasonication can be helpful in improving antioxidant and anti-tyrosinase activity.

Concomitant Administration of Red Ginseng Extract with Lactic Acid Bacteria Increases the Plasma Concentration of Deglycosylated Ginsenosides in Healthy Human Subjects.

With the increased frequency of red ginseng extract (RGE) and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) co-administration, we aimed to investigate the interactions between RGE and LAB with regard to in vitro and in vivo deglycosylation metabolism and the pharmacokinetics of ginsenosides. As a proof-of-concept study, five healthy humans were administered RGE (104.1 mg of total ginsenosides/day) with or without co-administration of LAB (2 g, 1 billion CFU/day) for 2 weeks, and the plasma concentrations of ginsenosides in human plasma were monitored. The plasma exposure to compound K (CK), ginsenoside Rh2 (GRh2), protopanaxadiol (PPD), and protopanaxatriol (PPT) in the concomitant administration RGE and LAB groups increased by 2.7-, 2.1-, 1.6-, and 3.5-fold, respectively, compared to those in the RGE administration group, without a significant change in Tmax. The plasma concentrations of GRb1, GRb2, and GRc remained unchanged, whereas the AUC values of GRd and GRg3 significantly decreased in the concomitant administration RGE and LAB groups. To understand the underlying mechanism, the in vitro metabolic activity of ginsenosides was measured during the fermentation of RGE or individual ginsenosides in the presence of LAB for 1 week. Consistent with the in vivo results, co-incubation with RGE and LAB significantly increased the formation rate of GRh2, CK, PPD, and PPT. These results may be attributed to the facilitated deglycosylation of GRd and GRg3 and the increased production of GRh2, CK, PPD, and PPT by the co-administration of LAB and RGE. In conclusion, LAB supplementation increased the plasma concentrations of deglycosylated ginsenosides, such as GRh2, CK, PPD, and PPT, through facilitated deglycosylation metabolism of ginsenosides in the intestine.

Ginsenosides affect the system of Toll-like receptors in the brain of rats under conditions of long-term alcohol withdrawal

Long-term alcohol consumption causes the development of neuroinflammation in various brain structures. One of the mechanisms involved in this process is the increased activity of TLR-signaling intracellular pathways. Studies confirm the ability of ginseng extract or its individual ginsenosides to reduce the increased activity of TLR-signaling pathways. The aim of our study was to study the effect of the amount of ginsenosides obtained from the extract of the Panax japonicus cell line on the state of the TLR-signaling system in the nucleus accumbens and hippocampus of the rat brain in a model of long-term alcohol consumption during alcohol withdrawal. The results of the study showed that ginsenosides were able to make changes in the TLR signaling system, which has been altered by long-term alcohol consumption. A significant effect of ginsenosides on the level of TLR3 and TLR4 mRNA in the nucleus accumbens was found, while in the hippocampus, ginsenosides significantly affected the level of TLR7 mRNA. The effect of ginsenosides on the level of mRNA of transcription factors and cytokines involved in TLR-signaling was evaluated. Thus, results of our study confirm that ginsenosides are able to influence the state of TLR-signaling pathways, but this effect is multidirectional in relation to different brain structures. In the future, it seems interesting to evaluate the role of individual ginsenosides in relation to genes of TLR-signaling, as well as the effect of ginsenosides on other brain structures.

Differences in the chemical composition of Panax ginseng roots infected with red rust

Ethnopharmacological relevanceGinseng rusty root (GRR) is a commonly occurring disease that affects the continuous farming and economic value of mountain cultivated ginseng (MCG). Previous studies have demonstrated a generally smaller level of total ginsenoside in GRR tissue, but differences in individual ginsenosides or changes between rusty and healthy MCG with a higher age have not been investigated. Aim of the studyThis research aimed to identify differences in the chemical components in the roots of rusty compared with healthy MCG harvested at 20-years of age. Materials and methodsDifferences between rusty and healthy MCG roots in individual ginsenosides were evaluated using a non-targeted metabonomic-based ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS) technique. Chemical markers and the principal constituents were then quantified by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). Furthermore, total ginsenosides, total polysaccharides, and the elemental composition were evaluated separately using spectrophotometry and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometer (ICP-OES). ResultsThere was no significant difference in the levels of total ginsenosides or total polysaccharides between the rusty and healthy groups. However, the concentrations of pivotal individual ginsenosides, including ginsenoside Rc, ginsenoside Ro, and ginsenoside Rd were significantly lower in the rusty group. In addition, concentrations of Fe and Al were higher in the rusty group compared with the healthy group. ConclusionsThe results suggest that GRR affects the synthesis of ginsenosides of 20-year-old MCG, which further establishes reference data and the basis for exploration of the mechanisms causing metabolic changes in ginseng resulting from GRR.

HPLC–MS/MS Analysis and Study on the Adsorption/Desorption Characteristics of Ginsenosides on Anion-Exchange Macroporous Resins

Anion exchange resin is a modified version of polar/nonpolar macro porous resins with enhanced selectivity on compounds carrying negative charges. Although it is a promising adsorbent for the purification of natural products, no research regarding its application on ginsenosides has been reported elsewhere. In this paper, we first isolated total ginsenosides from Panax ginseng and investigated their static adsorption/desorption capacity on different resins, among which D301 resin was selected as the optimum one. A pH value of 8 was chosen for the balanced interaction between total ginsenosides and the adsorbents. Adsorption kinetics and isotherms of total ginsenosides on D301 and D101 resins were investigated to differentiate the adsorption characteristics of anion exchange and nonpolar macroporous resins. A D301-based chromatographic method was established to purify total ginsenosides with settings as follows: sample loading and elution speed = 4 bed volume per hour, breakthrough volume = 2 bed volume, elution solvent = 80% aqueous ethanol, elution volume = 8 bed volume. HPLC-QqQ-MS qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed nine individual ginsenosides from the eluates, demonstrating an enrichment factor of 5.3 as well as a recovery rate of 80.9% for the whole of these ginsenosides. The purity of these ginsenosides in Panax ginseng extract increased from 17.07% to 91.19% after the purification. Hence, anion exchange resin D301 proved to be a more comprehensive and efficient adsorbent than the conventional nonpolar macroporous resin for the separation of total ginsenosides from natural sources. Based on the findings in this paper, the enrichment process for total ginsenosides could be well established via one-step column chromatography.

Analysis of Ginsenoside Content (Panax ginseng) from Different Regions.

Recently Panax ginseng has been grown as a secondary crop under a pine tree canopy in New Zealand (NZ). The aim of the study is to compare the average content of ginsenosides from NZ-grown ginseng and its original native locations (China and Korea) grown ginseng. Ten batches of NZ-grown ginseng were extracted using 70% methanol and analyzed using LC-MS/MS. The average content of ginsenosides from China and Korea grown ginseng were obtained by collecting data from 30 and 17 publications featuring China and Korea grown ginseng, respectively. The average content of total ginsenosides in NZ-grown ginseng was 40.06 ± 3.21 mg/g (n = 14), which showed significantly (p < 0.05) higher concentration than that of China grown ginseng (16.48 ± 1.24 mg/g, n = 113) and Korea grown ginseng (21.05 ± 1.57 mg/g, n = 106). For the individual ginsenosides, except for the ginsenosides Rb2, Rc, and Rd, ginsenosides Rb1, Re, Rf, and Rg1 from NZ-grown ginseng were 2.22, 2.91, 1.65, and 1.27 times higher than that of ginseng grown in China, respectively. Ginsenosides Re and Rg1 in NZ-grown ginseng were also 2.14 and 1.63 times higher than ginseng grown in Korea. From the accumulation of ginsenosides, New Zealand volcanic pumice soil may be more suitable for ginseng growth than its place of origin.

Cold-induced ginsenosides accumulation is associated with the alteration in DNA methylation and relative gene expression in perennial American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) along with its plant growth and development process

BackgroundGinsenosides accumulation responses to temperature are critical to quality formation in cold-dependent American ginseng. However, the studies on cold requirement mechanism relevant to ginsenosides have been limited in this species. MethodsTwo experiments were carried out: one was a multivariate linear regression analysis between the ginsenosides accumulation and the environmental conditions of American ginseng from different sites of China and the other was a synchronous determination of ginsenosides accumulation, overall DNA methylation, and relative gene expression in different tissues during different developmental stages of American ginseng after experiencing different cold exposure duration treatments. ResultsResults showed that the variation of the contents as well as the yields of total and individual ginsenosides Rg1, Re, and Rb1 in the roots were closely associated with environmental temperature conditions which implied that the cold environment plays a decisive role in the ginsenoside accumulation of American ginseng. Further results showed that there is a cyclically reversible dynamism between methylation and demethylation of DNA in the perennial American ginseng in response to temperature seasonality. And sufficient cold exposure duration in winter caused sufficient DNA demethylation in tender leaves in early spring and then accompanied the high expression of flowering gene PqFT in flowering stages and ginsenosides biosynthesis gene PqDDS in green berry stages successively, and finally, maximum ginsenosides accumulation occurred in the roots of American ginseng. ConclusionWe, therefore, hypothesized that cold-induced DNA methylation changes might regulate relative gene expression involving both plant development and plant secondary metabolites in such cold-dependent perennial plant species.

Effect of vermicompost application on root growth and ginsenoside content of Panax ginseng

Vermicomposts are valuable by-products of organic wastes and can be used to improve soil environments in ginseng production. We compared the effects of food waste vermicompost (FWV), cow manure vermicompost (CMV) and paper sludge vermicompost (PSV) on several ginseng root production variables. Interactions between soil chemical properties, root growth, ginsenoside content and plant mineral content were also investigated. In the PSV treatment, the root yield increased by 40 t ha−1 compared to the untreated control. Nitrate concentration correlated negatively with root yield, and none of the vermicompost treatments differed significantly from the control in terms of root loss. Soil pH correlated positively with root weight, and total ginsenoside content did not vary among treatments, although some individual ginsenosides did differ among treatments. Root iron content correlated strongly with total ginsenoside content, and total ginsenoside content correlated negatively with root yield. Overall, our results showed that the root yield increase was not due to nutrient increase. Vermicompost was safe to use in relation to root rot disease, and it favourably elevated the pH of fields converted from rice paddies to ginseng production. Ginsenoside was not involved in defence mechanisms against root rot disease. Root iron content may have been involved in the metabolism of ginsenoside, and there was an apparent trade-off between ginsenoside content and root yield. Finally, vermicompost application altered resource allocation and soil chemical properties, which led to novel interactions between root parameters and components.

Low dose gamma radiation increases the biomass and ginsenoside content of callus and adventitious root cultures of wild ginseng (Panax ginseng Mayer)

Mountain ginseng (Panax ginseng Mayer) is known as the most valuable herb around the world. Several biotechnological tools have been developed to enhance the production of secondary metabolites in medicinal plants, especially mountain ginseng. Mutagenesis is used to create desirable mutations at the genetic level. Among several energy sources used in mutant breeding programs, gamma rays are considered the most common and efficient tool for mutagenesis. Gamma rays are preferred over other energy sources because of convenient operation, short cycle, and high mutation frequency. In this study, gamma rays were used to generate mutant adventitious root lines of P. ginseng with high biomass and ginsenoside content. Callus and adventitious root cultures of P. ginseng, which were in culture short-term (1 year) and long-term (20 years), were irradiated with various doses of gamma rays. Exposure to higher doses of gamma rays caused necrosis in long-term explants. Four mutant lines of adventitious roots were identified with unique RAPD markers using eight primers. The genetic similarity among mutant lines ranged from 0.67 to 0.96. We also analyzed the total ginsenoside content and levels of 12 individual ginsenosides using HPLC analysis. The total ginsenoside content was 4.2-fold higher in mutant lines than in the control. The mutant line 1G-20-19 showed the highest ginsenoside content compared with the untreated control and other mutant lines. Overall, mutant lines of adventitious roots by gamma ray treatments in this study represent good candidates for commercial production of ginsenosides.

The Effects of Environmental Factors on Ginsenoside Biosynthetic Enzyme Gene Expression and Saponin Abundance

Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer is one of the most important medicinal plants in Northeast China, and ginsenosides are the main active ingredients found in medicinal ginseng. The biosynthesis of ginsenosides is regulated by environmental factors and the expression of key enzyme genes. Therefore, in this experiment, ginseng in the leaf opened stage, the green fruit stage, the red fruit stage, and the root growth stage was used as the test material, and nine individual ginsenosides and total saponins (the sum of the individual saponins) were detected by HPLC (High Performance Liquid Chromatography). There was a trend of synergistic increase and decrease, and saponin accumulation and transfer in different tissues. The expression of key enzyme genes in nine synthetic pathways was detected by real-time PCR, and the correlation between saponin content, gene expression, and ecological factors was analyzed. Correlation analysis showed that in root tissue, PAR (Photosynthetically Active Radiation) and soil water potential had a greater impact on ginsenoside accumulation, while in leaf tissue, temperature and relative humidity had a greater impact on ginsenoside accumulation. The results provide a theoretical basis for elucidating the relationship between ecological factors and genetic factors and their impact on the quality of medicinal materials. The results also have guiding significance for realizing the quality of medicinal materials.

Genotypic and Organ Variation in Ginsenoside Contents from American Ginseng Populations

Variation in ginsenoside content was investigated as a function of population/genotype, plant organ, and age using four geographically isolated wild populations and one landrace population of american ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.). The contents of individual and total ginsenosides were affected by the main and two-way interactions between population, organ, and age. Ginsenoside Re was not detected in roots of the wild population plants but was found in leaves and in both organs of the landrace population. A positive relationship between root age and total root ginsenosides was detected in two wild populations. Individual root ginsenosides were highly correlated with certain leaf ginsenosides in wild populations rather than in landrace populations. Therefore, the results suggest that certain leaf ginsenosides would be applied for potential biomarkers to estimate individual root ginsenosides. Principal component analysis (PCA) scores plot indicates that all wild populations were segregated from the single landrace population. However, cluster analysis indicates that differences existed between organs, and between the wild and landrace populations. Overall, the result suggests that the variation of individual and total ginsenoside contents would be influenced by a combination of population, plant organ, and root age.

Combination of HPLC–MS and QAMS as a new analytical approach for determination of saponins in ginseng containing products

Conventional liquid chromatographic methods coupled with ultraviolet detection with low-wavelength range are lacking selectivity and sensitivity to determine both polar and less polar ginsenosides. Also the lack of standard substances for such quality control methods is leading to development of the approaches using single standard for quantitative analysis of multi-component system (QAMS). The objective of present study was to establish and compare for the first time liquid chromatography–ultraviolet detection and liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry QAMS methods for the simultaneous determination of protopanaxatriol-type and protopanaxadiol-type ginsenosides in a variety of ginseng products. Sixteen polar and less polar ginsenosides were separated on a reversed-phase C18-column (150mm×2.0mm, 2.2μm) with a mobile phase consisting of 0.1% formic acid in water and acetonitrile. Components were then detected by means of ultraviolet and mass spectrometry detection. Characteristic sapogenin fragmentation signals with m/z 423 and 425 for two major groups of ginseng saponins allowed their simultaneous determination in a single chromatographic run, while the use of ultraviolet detection tends to give overvalued results. Structural correlation between the relative response factors and saponin structure was demonstrated. The method was linear (R2 >0.999) and sensitive (LODs, 0.01–0.03mg/mL) within the concentration range tested. Concentrations of individual ginsenosides and several quality control parameters were determined in ginseng root extracts and commercial ginseng products of different types (root slices, tablets and tea samples), and results showed that ginsenoside content can be successfully measured by means of QAMS approach.

Role of Ginseng as Hepatoprotective, Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory against Methotrexate Induced Liver Injury in Rats.

Background Ginseng, an ancient and famous medicinal herb in the Orient, has been used as a valuable tonic and for the treatment of various diseases including hepatic disorders. Ginseng extracts and individual ginsenosides have shown a wide array of beneficial role in the regulation of regular liver functions and the treatment of liver disorders. Objective: This study tries to determine the hepatoprotective , antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of ginseng on Methotrexate (MTX)-induced hepatotoxicity Materials and Methods: forty rats (weigh 150-180 g) were used. The rats were kept in animal house for one week and had access to water and food . Temperature was kept at 37 °C. After one week, the rats were randomly divided into four equal groups: Group (A) (control) received normal saline ; group (B )received Ginseng(1.8 ml/kg/day) orally ; group( C) received MTX (100 μg/kg) intraperitoneally and group (D) received MTX (100 μg/kg) intraperitoneally with ginseng (1.8 ml/kg/day) orally. After six weeks, the rats were decapitated and evaluation of liver function was done. Results: Ginseng treatment markedly suppressed the serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) , aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and serum gama glutamil transpeptidase (λGTP) activiteis . Ginseng was attributed to stimulate anti-oxidant protein contents, such as glutathione peroxidase (GPX). The marked increase of proinflammatory cytokines ( TNF α ) in MTX treated rats group was additionally attenuated by ginseng, Conclusion : Ginseng effectively prevent liver injury, mainly through down regulation of oxidative stress and inflammatory response.

Effects of American Ginseng on Preimplantation Development and Pregnancy in Mice

In North America, a high proportion of pregnant women use herbal medications including North American ginseng. This medicinal plant contains high amounts of triterpene saponins (ginsenosides), which are the main bioactive compounds. It is important to assess ginseng's impact on all reproductive functions to ensure the safety of pregnant women and fetuses. In this study, we defined the concentration-responsive effects of North American alcoholic and aqueous ginseng extracts on preimplantation development in vitro and on pregnancy and post-partum development in the mouse. Two-cell mouse embryos were cultured with 5 different concentrations of whole ginseng root extracts, or ginsenosides Rb1, Rg1 and Re alone, a combinatorial ginsenoside solution and a crude polysaccharide fraction solution. Embryonic development and recovery from each treatment was assessed. To investigate the in vivo effects of ginseng extracts, female mice were gavaged with 50[Formula: see text]mg/kg/day, 500[Formula: see text]mg/kg/day or 2000[Formula: see text]mg/kg/day of either extract (treatment) or water (sham) for 2 weeks prior to mating and throughout gestation. Gestation period, litter size, pup growth and pup sex ratio were evaluated. Oral ginseng consumption did not significantly affect fertility or pregnancy in the mouse. High doses of ginseng (2000[Formula: see text]mg/kg/day) decreased maternal weight gain. Direct treatment of preimplantation embryos in vitro demonstrated that ALC and AQ extract treatment reduced development in a concentration responsive manner, while only ALC extract effects were largely reversible. Treatments with individual or combinatorial ginsenosides, or the polysaccharide fraction solution alone did not impair preimplantation development, in vitro. In conclusion, maternal oral consumption of ginseng has little negative impact on pregnancy in the mouse, however, direct exposure to ginseng extract during mouse preimplantation development in vitro is detrimental.

Production of ginseng saponins: elicitation strategy and signal transductions.

Ginseng is one of the most important plants in oriental medicine. The pharmacological effects of this medicinal herb are mostly correlated to the major bioactive triterpene saponin, called ginsenoside. Due to the long cultivation period of ginseng and increased ginsenoside level in aged root, we need to develop strategies to increase ginseng productivity in cell and tissue culture in a faster way. Elicitation is already considered to improve the yield of this valuable secondary metabolite; especially, different types, timings, and durations of elicitation could affect the ginsenoside production and heterogeneity. Activation of ginsenoside biosynthetic genes and ginsenoside accumulation mediated by elicitor-induced signaling molecules would be helpful for commercial production of individual ginsenosides. Jasmonic acid is the well-known signaling molecule which mainly involved in ginsenoside accumulation. Ca(2+) spiking and reactive oxygen species, nitric oxide, and ethylene production are other messengers which mediate production of ginsenoside. This review highlights the elicitation strategies for production of the ginsenoside based on the principle of putative signal transduction pathways.

Ginsenosides and amino acids in flavored ginseng chips as affected by food formulation and processing technology

The objective of this study was to develop a novel product for ready-to-eat (RTE) ginseng chips with distinctive flavors through food processing (soaking with different media, pre-heating, steaming, freezing and freeze-drying). Changes in total saponin contents, ginsenosides and amino acid contents of ginseng product were investigated. Results showed that ginseng treated with most of the soaking media obtained changes in saponin content significantly (p < 0.05). Surprisingly, ginseng treated with sugar type soaking media obtained significant (p < 0.05) increases in content of ginsenoside Rg3. Ginseng chips soaked with glucose solution, sucrose-vinegar solution, and sucrose solution increased ginsenoside Rg3 31%, 36%, and 64%, respectively. All soaking media showed a descending trend in amino acids content. In conclusion, soaking with sucrose solution is proposed as optimal processing conditions to yield end-product with high bioactive components and favorable taste. Industrial relevanceThis research would have practical applications in providing value-added novel food products derived from ginseng. Presented information will provide useful reference for the food industry to develop new ready-to-eat ginseng food products with specific flavor and texture. The changes in total ginseng saponin, individual ginsenosides and free amino acids in different novel ginseng products may provide manufacturer information to produce desired products with targeted components.

Korean red ginseng saponin fraction rich in ginsenoside-Rb1, Rc and Rb2 attenuates the severity of mouse collagen-induced arthritis.

Despite a multitude of reports on anti-inflammatory properties of ginseng extracts or individual ginsenosides, data on antiarthritic effect of ginseng saponin preparation with mixed ginsenosides is limited. On the other hand, a combined therapy of safe and inexpensive plant-derived natural products such as ginsenosides can be considered as an alternative to treat arthritis. Our previous in vitro data displayed a strong anti-inflammatory action of red ginseng saponin fraction-A (RGSF-A). We, herein, report a marked antiarthritic property of RGSF-A rich in ginsenoside Rb1, Rc, and Rb2. Collagen-induced arthritic (CIA) mice were treated with RGSF-A or methotrexate (MTX) for 5 weeks. Joint pathology, serum antibody production and leukocye activation, cytokine production in the circulation, lymph nodes, and joints were examined. RGSF-A markedly reduced severity of arthritis, cellular infiltration, and cartilage damage. It suppressed CD3+/CD69+, CD4+/CD25+, CD8+ T-cell, CD19+, B220/CD23+ B-cell, MHCII+/CD11c+, and Gr-1+/CD11b+ cell activations. It further suppressed anti-CII- or anti-RF-IgG/IgM, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-17, and IL-6 secretions but stimulated IL-10 levels in the serum, joint, or splenocyte. RGSF-A attenuated arthritis severity, modified leukocyte activations, and restored cytokine imbalances, suggesting that it can be considered as an antiarthritic agent with the capacity to ameliorate the immune and inflammatory responses in CIA mice.

Panax ginseng is neuroprotective in a novel progressive model of Parkinson's disease

Panax ginseng has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for centuries. Among its various benefits is a pluripotent targeting of the various events involved in neuronal cell death. This includes anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and anti-apoptotic effects. Indeed, ginseng extract and its individual ginsenosides have been demonstrated to influence a number of biochemical markers implicated in Parkinson's disease (PD) pathogenesis. We have reported previously that administration of the ginseng extract, G115, afforded robust neuroprotection in two rodent models of PD. However, these traditional rodent models are acute in nature and do accurately recapitulate the progressive nature of the disease. Chronic exposure to the dietary phytosterol glucoside, β-sitosterol β-d-glucoside (BSSG) triggers the progressive development of neurological deficits, with behavioral and cellular features that closely approximate those observed in PD patients. Clinical signs and histopathology continue to develop for several months following cessation of exposure to the neurotoxic insult. Here, we utilized this model to further characterize the neuroprotective effects of the ginseng extract, G115. Oral administration of this extract significantly reduced dopaminergic cell loss, microgliosis, and accumulation of α-synuclein aggregates. Further, G115 administration fully prevented the development of locomotor deficits, in the form of reduced locomotor activity and coordination. These results suggest that ginseng extract may be a potential neuroprotective therapy for the treatment of PD.

Water deficit affects plant and soil water status, plant growth, and ginsenoside contents in American ginseng

American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) produces pharmacologically active secondary compounds known as ginsenosides which have been shown to be influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. In a greenhouse experiment, effects of water deficit on ginseng plant growth, predawn leaf water potential (ΨLeaf), soil water potential (ΨSoil), leaf abscisic acid (ABA) concentration, and root ginsenoside contents as well as photosynthesis-related physiological responses were studied. Three-year-old seedlings, grown in 200 mL volume of plastic pots, were well watered for 45 days prior to the initiation of water deficit treatments. Plants in the water deficit treatments were irrigated every 10 or 20 days for the mild and severe water deficit treatments, respectively, while the control plants were watered every 4 days. The experiment was terminated after 15, 6, and 3 dry down cycles (60 days) for the control, mild, and severe water deficit treatments, respectively. As water deficit progressed, both ΨSoil and ΨLeaf decreased, but foliar ABA concentration increased. Other physiological responses to water deficit, including transpiration rate, stomatal conductance, and CO2 assimilation rate, were decreased. Water deficit decreased root growth, but unaffected shoot growth. Foliar chlorophyll content was also decreased in the water deficit treatments. The contents of individual ginsenosides Re, Rb1, Rc and Rd, and total ginsenosides were increased in the storage roots of water deficit-treated plants as compared with well-watered controls. Rootlet fresh weight before transplanting (RFWBT) as a covariate had a significant effect on the contents of ginsenoside Rb1, Rc, and Rb2. Overall, the results indicate that water deficit could contribute not only to reducing plant performance but also increasing the levels of ABA and certain ginsenoisdes.

Malonyl-ginsenoside content of a cell-suspension culture of Panax japonicus var. repens

The presence of large amounts of ginsenosides malonyl-Rb1, -Rc, -Rb2, and -Rd in a suspension culture of Panax japonicus var. repens cells was demonstrated for the first time. Identification of ginsenoside malonyl-Rb1 was based on chromatographic, chemical, and spectroscopic evidence. Ginsenosides malonyl-Rc, -Rb2, and -Rd were identified on the basis of chromatographic and chemical data. Content and composition of the individual ginsenosides (Rg1, R0, malonyl-Rb1, Rb1, Rc, Rb2, and Rd) were monitored in the suspension culture over 4 years. The RP-HPLC-UV analysis showed that Rg1, R0, and malonyl-Rb1 accounted for more than 75% of the total pool of ginsenosides. In accordance with this result, and data analysis reported in the literature, we propose that ginsenoside formation in the cells of P. japonicus var. repens in vitro is closely related to the cellular compartmentation of these substances. In particular, the accumulation of the 20(S)-protopanaxadiol ginsenosides (especially Rb1) is strongly dependent on their pattern of malonylation, which likely targets them for transport into the vacuole.