Individual Differences In Susceptibility Research Articles

Explorations in Creepiness: Tolerance for Ambiguity and Susceptibility to “Not Just Right Experiences” Predict the Ease of Getting “Creeped Out”

This study was designed to explore the role played by ambiguity in the experience of creepiness, as well as the relevance of personality traits for predicting individual differences in susceptibility to getting “creeped out,” In an online study, a mixed sample of 278 college undergraduates and adults (60 males, 206 females, 12 nonbinary or chose not to report; Mean age = 31.43, range 18-68) recruited through social network platforms filled out scales measuring their tolerance for ambiguity and their susceptibility to having “Not Just Right Experiences.” They then rated 25 images (12 normal, 13 prejudged to be creepy or confusing) on creepiness and several other adjective dimensions. The findings indicated that individuals who were less tolerant of ambiguity and those highly susceptible to not just right experiences perceived ambiguous or creepy persons, places, and objects to be more creepy, confusing and disturbing. Both measures were negatively related to time spent looking at confusing or creepy images, and females were generally more easily creeped out by creepy and confusing images than were males. The results support the conclusion that current models of creepiness are correct; the emotional experience of getting “creeped out” does indeed appear to be triggered by the need to resolve ambiguity.

Explorations in Creepiness: Tolerance for Ambiguity and Susceptibility to “Not Just Right Experiences” Predict the Ease of Getting “Creeped Out”

This study was designed to explore the role played by ambiguity in the experience of creepiness, as well as the relevance of personality traits for predicting individual differences in susceptibility to getting “creeped out,” In an online study, a mixed sample of 278 college undergraduates and adults (60 males, 206 females, 12 nonbinary or chose not to report; Mean age = 31.43, range 18-68) recruited through social network platforms filled out scales measuring their tolerance for ambiguity and their susceptibility to having “Not Just Right Experiences.” They then rated 25 images (12 normal, 13 prejudged to be creepy or confusing) on creepiness and several other adjective dimensions. The findings indicated that individuals who were less tolerant of ambiguity and those highly susceptible to not just right experiences perceived ambiguous or creepy persons, places, and objects to be more creepy, confusing and disturbing. Both measures were negatively related to time spent looking at confusing or creepy images, and females were generally more easily creeped out by creepy and confusing images than were males. The results support the conclusion that current models of creepiness are correct; the emotional experience of getting “creeped out” does indeed appear to be triggered by the need to resolve ambiguity.

The impact of acute violent videogame exposure on neurocognitive markers of empathic concern.

Research examining the purported association between violent gaming and aggression remains controversial due to concerns related to methodology, unclear neurocognitive mechanisms, and the failure to adequately consider the role of individual differences in susceptibility. To help address these concerns, we used fMRI and an emotional empathy task to examine whether acute and cumulative violent gaming exposure were associated with abnormalities in emotional empathy as a function of trait-empathy. Emotional empathy was targeted given its involvement in regulating not only aggression, but also other important social functions such as compassion and prosocial behaviour. We hypothesized that violent gaming exposure increases the risk of aberrant social behaviour by altering the aversive value of distress cues. Contrary to expectations, neither behavioural ratings nor empathy-related brain activity varied as a function of violent gaming exposure. Notably, however, activation patterns in somatosensory and motor cortices reflected an interaction between violent gaming exposure and trait empathy. Thus, our results are inconsistent with a straightforward relationship between violent gaming exposure and reduced empathy. Furthermore, they highlight the importance of considering both individual differences in susceptibility and other aspects of cognition related to social functioning to best inform public concern regarding safe gaming practices.

The General Factor of Environmental Sensitivity: Relationships with the General Factor of Personality.

Environmental sensitivity is a meta-concept that describes individual differences in susceptibility to both positive and negative environmental influences and has been repeatedly reported to correlate with other established personality traits, including the Big Five. The purpose of this study was to examine the correlation between the general factor of environmental sensitivity (GFS) and the general factor of personality (GFP). A total of 1,046 adult participants (52% female; Mage = 45.15, SDage = 12.70) completed a self-report psychological questionnaire on an online form. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that GFS had a strong negative correlation with GFP (r = -.41, 95% CI [-.52, -.30], p < .001). Focusing on the relationship with the Big Five, individuals with higher environmental sensitivity were emotionally unstable and introverted. The trait of environmental sensitivity may be described not only in relation to the Big Five but also in relation to GFP, which is assumed to be an indicator of social effectiveness.

TAS2R38 Bitter Taste Receptor Polymorphisms in Patients with Chronic Rhinosinusitis with Nasal Polyps Preliminary Data in Polish Population.

Chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) affects 5-12% of the general population, and the most challenging patients are those with nasal polyposis (CRSwNP). Its complexity, unpredictability, and difficulties in selecting a treatment plan individually for each patient prompted scientists to look for possible genetic causes of this disease. It was proven that single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the TAS2R38 gene may affect the mobility and the activity of the ciliated epithelium of the upper respiratory tract what can contribute to individual differences in susceptibility to CRS. There are two common haplotypes: a "protective" type (PAV), and a "non-protective" type (AVI). CRS patients who are homozygous PAV/PAV are considered as less susceptible to the severe course of the disease, whereas patients with AVI/AVI haplotype are more vulnerable. The aim of this study was to examine TAS2R38 gene polymorphisms among CRSwNP patients and control group (N = 544) with the evaluation of the association between the distribution of studied polymorphic variants and the incidence as well as severity of CRSwNP in the study group. Whole blood samples from CRSwNP patients (N = 106) and the control group (N = 438) were analyzed for alleles of the TAS2R38 gene using real-time PCR single nucleotide polymorphism genotyping assays for rs713598, rs1726866, and rs10246939. PAV (SG: 41%; CG: 49%) and AVI (SG: 59%; CG: 51%) haplotypes were the only ones detected in the study. The AVI haplotypes were 1.5 times more frequent in the study group than in the control group (p = 0.0204; OR = 1.43). AVI/AVI individuals tended to have more severe symptoms in the VAS scale, less QoL in the SNOT-22 test, and a bigger nasal obstruction upon endoscopic examination. Patients with PAV/PAV were twice more likely to have minor changes in preoperative CT scans (p = 0.0158; OR = 2.1; Fi = 0.24). Our study confirmed that the PAV/PAV diplotype might have some protective properties and carrying the AVI haplotype might predispose to the development of CRSwNP.

One hundred malaria attacks since birth. A longitudinal study of African children and young adults exposed to high malaria transmission

Despite significant progress in malaria control over the past twenty years, malaria remains a leading cause of child morbidity and mortality in Tropical Africa. As most patients do not consult any health facility much uncertainty persists about the true burden of the disease and the range of individual differences in susceptibility to malaria. Over a 25-years period, from 1990 to 2015, the inhabitants of Dielmo village, Senegal, an area of intense malaria transmission, have been monitored daily for their presence in the village and the occurrence of diseases. In case of fever thick blood films were systematically examined through microscopy for malaria parasites and patients received prompt diagnosis and treatment. We analysed data collected in 111 children and young adults monitored for at least 10 years (mean 17.3 years, maximum 25 years) enrolled either at birth (95 persons) or during the two first years of life. A total of 11,599 episodes of fever were documented, including 5268 malaria attacks. The maximum number of malaria attacks in a single person was 112. Three other persons suffered one hundred or more malaria attacks during follow-up. The minimum number of malaria attacks in a single person was 11. The mean numbers of malaria attacks in children reaching their 4th, 7th, and 10th birthdays were 23.0, 37.7, and 43.6 attacks since birth, respectively. Sixteen children (14.4%) suffered ten or more malaria attacks each year at ages 1-3 years, and six children (5.4%) each year at age 4-6 years. Long-term close monitoring shows that in highly endemic areas the malaria burden is higher than expected. Susceptibility to the disease may vary up to 10-fold, and for most children childhood is an endless history of malaria fever episodes. No other parasitic, bacterial or viral infection in human populations has such an impact on health. The Pasteur Institutes of Dakar and Paris, the Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, and the French Ministry of Cooperation provided funding.

Preconceptional and in utero exposure of sheep to a real-life environmental chemical mixture disrupts key markers of energy metabolism in male offspring.

Over recent decades, an extensive array of anthropogenic chemicals have entered the environment and have been implicated in the increased incidence of an array of diseases, including metabolic syndrome. The ubiquitous presence of these environmental chemicals (ECs) necessitates the use of real-life exposure models to the assess cumulative risk burden to metabolic health. Sheep that graze on biosolids-treated pastures are exposed to a real-life mixture of ECs such as phthalates, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, heavy metals, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and metabolites thereof, and this EC exposure can result in metabolic disorders in their offspring. Using this model, we evaluated the effects of gestational exposure to a complex EC mixture on plasma triglyceride (TG) concentrations and metabolic and epigenetic regulatory genes in tissues key to energy regulation and storage, including the hypothalamus, liver, and adipose depots of 11-month-old male offspring. Our results demonstrated a binary effect of EC exposure on gene expression particularly in the hypothalamus. Principal component analysis revealed two subsets (B-S1 [n = 6] and B-S2 [n = 4]) within the biosolids group (B, n = 10), relative to the controls (C, n = 11). Changes in body weight, TG levels, and in gene expression in the hypothalamus, and visceral and subcutaneous fat were apparent between biosolid and control and the two subgroups of biosolids animals. These findings demonstrate that gestational exposure to an EC mixture results in differential regulation of metabolic processes in adult male offspring. Binary effects on hypothalamic gene expression and altered expression of lipid metabolism genes in visceral and subcutaneous fat, coupled with phenotypic outcomes, point to differences in individual susceptibility to EC exposure that could predispose vulnerable individuals to later metabolic dysfunction.

Human-genome single nucleotide polymorphisms affecting transcription factor binding and their role in pathogenesis.

Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are the most common type of variation in the human genome. The vast majority of SNPs identified in the human genome do not have any effect on the phenotype; however, some can lead to changes in the function of a gene or the level of its expression. Most SNPs associated with certain traits or pathologies are mapped to regulatory regions of the genome and affect gene expression by changing transcription factor binding sites. In recent decades, substantial effort has been invested in searching for such regulatory SNPs (rSNPs) and understanding the mechanisms by which they lead to phenotypic differences, primarily to individual differences in susceptibility to diseases and in sensitivity to drugs. The development of the NGS (next-generation sequencing) technology has contributed not only to the identification of a huge number of SNPs and to the search for their association (genome-wide association studies, GWASs) with certain diseases or phenotypic manifestations, but also to the development of more productive approaches to their functional annotation. It should be noted that the presence of an association does not allow one to identify a functional, truly disease-associated DNA sequence variant among multiple marker SNPs that are detected due to linkage disequilibrium. Moreover, determination of associations of genetic variants with a disease does not provide information about the functionality of these variants, which is necessary to elucidate the molecular mechanisms of the development of pathology and to design effective methods for its treatment and prevention. In this regard, the functional analysis of SNPs annotated in the GWAS catalog, both at the genome-wide level and at the level of individual SNPs, became especially relevant in recent years. A genome-wide search for potential rSNPs is possible without any prior knowledge of their association with a trait. Thus, mapping expression quantitative trait loci (eQTLs) makes it possible to identify an SNP for which - among transcriptomes of homozygotes and heterozygotes for its various alleles - there are differences in the expression level of certain genes, which can be located at various distances from the SNP. To predict rSNPs, approaches based on searches for allele-specific events in RNA-seq, ChIP-seq, DNase-seq, ATAC-seq, MPRA, and other data are also used. Nonetheless, for a more complete functional annotation of such rSNPs, it is necessary to establish their association with a trait, in particular, with a predisposition to a certain pathology or sensitivity to drugs. Thus, approaches to finding SNPs important for the development of a trait can be categorized into two groups: (1) starting from data on an association of SNPs with a certain trait, (2) starting from the determination of allele-specific changes at the molecular level (in a transcriptome or regulome). Only comprehensive use of strategically different approaches can considerably enrich our knowledge about the role of genetic determinants in the molecular mechanisms of trait formation, including predisposition to multifactorial diseases.

The BTPI: An online battery for measuring susceptibility to visual illusions.

Visual illusions provide a powerful tool for probing the mechanisms that underlie perception. While most previous studies of visual illusions focused on average group-level performance, less attention has been devoted to individual differences in susceptibility to illusions. Unlike in other perceptual domains, in which there are established, validated tools to measure individual differences, such tools are not yet available in the domain of visual illusions. Here, we describe the development and validation of the BTPI (Ben-Gurion University Test for Perceptual Illusions), a new online battery designed to measure susceptibility to the influence of three prominent size illusions: the Ebbinghaus, the Ponzo, and the height-width illusions. The BTPI also measures perceptual resolution, reflected by the just noticeable difference (JND), to detect size differences in the context of each illusion. In Experiment 1 (N = 143), we examined performance in typical self-paced tasks, whereas in Experiment 2 (N = 69), we employed a fixed presentation duration paradigm. High test-retest reliability scores were found for all illusions, with little evidence for intercorrelations between different illusions. In addition, lower perceptual resolution (larger JND) was associated with a larger susceptibility to the illusory effect. The computerized task battery and analysis codes are freely available online.

Investigating The Perseverance and Bias Blind Spot Relationship

Although cognitive bias is easily detectable in the judgments and decision making of other people, we often fail to see its influence in our own thoughts and behavior. This “bias blind spot” is present in most individuals, but its magnitude differs from person to person. To better understand individual differences in susceptibility, we examined the relationship between bias blind spot and perseverance. To measure perseverance, participants were asked to complete as many easy or difficult mazes as they were able to do. Bias blind spot was measured using a validated scale developed by Scopelliti et al. (2015). Bias blind spot susceptibility was compared to time spent on the mazes and number of mazes completed. ANCOVA results revealed a significant finding between bias blind spot and measures of perseverance on difficult mazes, suggesting a relationship exists for bias blind spot and perseverance on challenging tasks. A second study will measure differences in perseverant behavior when feedback is introduced that compares the participant’s number of mazes completed to the average number completed by peers.

Polymorphisms in Glutathione S-Transferase (GST) Genes Modify the Effect of Exposure to Maternal Smoking Metabolites in Pregnancy and Offspring DNA Methylation.

Maternal smoking in pregnancy (MSP) affects the offspring's DNA methylation (DNAm). There is a lack of knowledge regarding individual differences in susceptibility to exposure to MSP. Glutathione S-transferase (GST) genes are involved in protection against harmful oxidants such as those found in cigarette smoke. This study aimed to test whether polymorphisms in GST genes influence the effect of MSP on offspring DNAm. Using data from the Isle of Wight birth cohort, we assessed the association of MSP and offspring DNAm in 493 mother-child dyads (251 male, 242 female) with the effect-modifying role of GST gene polymorphism (at rs506008, rs574344, rs12736389, rs3768490, rs1537234, and rs1695). MSP was assessed by levels of nicotine and its downstream metabolites (cotinine, norcotinine, and hydroxycotinine) in maternal sera. In males, associations of hydroxycotinine with DNAm at cg18473733, cg25949550, cg11647108, and cg01952185 and norcotinine with DNAm at cg09935388 were modified by GST gene polymorphisms (p-values < 0.05). In females, associations of hydroxycotinine with DNAm at cg12160087 and norcotinine with DNAm at cg18473733 were modified by GST gene polymorphisms (p-values < 0.05). Our study emphasizes the role of genetic polymorphism in GST genes in DNAm's susceptibility to MSP.

Functionally distinct regions of the locus Leishmania major response 15 control IgE or IFNγ level in addition to skin lesions.

Leishmaniasis, a disease caused by parasites of Leishmania spp., endangers more than 1 billion people living in endemic countries and has three clinical forms: cutaneous, mucocutaneous, and visceral. Understanding of individual differences in susceptibility to infection and heterogeneity of its pathology is largely lacking. Different mouse strains show a broad and heterogeneous range of disease manifestations such as skin lesions, splenomegaly, hepatomegaly, and increased serum levels of immunoglobulin E and several cytokines. Genome-wide mapping of these strain differences detected more than 30 quantitative trait loci (QTLs) that control the response to Leishmania major. Some control different combinations of disease manifestations, but the nature of this heterogeneity is not yet clear. In this study, we analyzed the L. major response locus Lmr15 originally mapped in the strain CcS-9 which carries 12.5% of the genome of the resistant strain STS on the genetic background of the susceptible strain BALB/c. For this analysis, we used the advanced intercross line K3FV between the strains BALB/c and STS. We confirmed the previously detected loci Lmr15, Lmr18, Lmr24, and Lmr27 and performed genetic dissection of the effects of Lmr15 on chromosome 11. We prepared the interval-specific recombinant strains 6232HS1 and 6229FUD, carrying two STS-derived segments comprising the peak linkage of Lmr15 whose lengths were 6.32 and 17.4 Mbp, respectively, and analyzed their response to L. major infection. These experiments revealed at least two linked but functionally distinct chromosomal regions controlling IFNγ response and IgE response, respectively, in addition to the control of skin lesions. Bioinformatics and expression analysis identified the potential candidate gene Top3a. This finding further clarifies the genetic organization of factors relevant to understanding the differences in the individual risk of disease.

Watching a video of nature reduces negative affect and rumination, while positive affect is determined by the level of sensory processing sensitivity

Natural environments have positive effects in reducing rumination, improving affect and restoring depleted cognitive abilities, however individual differences in susceptibility to these positive effects are still understudied. Higher Sensory Processing Sensitivity (SPS) is a risk factor for mental ill-health and ruminative thoughts, however, those high in SPS are particularly connected with nature, therefore potentially more susceptible to nature-based interventions. In this pre-post study, we evaluated the impact of virtual nature exposure on affect, rumination, and executive functions in individuals with varying levels of SPS. 147 participants (53.1% female; Mage = 48.07) were characterised SPS, depression and anxiety, then they completed measures of affect, state rumination and performed the Stroop task before and after watching a nature or urban video. The study was conducted online. Changes in positive affect were predicted by the interaction between SPS and the type of environment viewed. A decrease in negative affect post exposure to the nature video, and rumination post both interventions were also found overall, but not on Stroop performance. A thematic analysis of qualitative follow up questions contributed to elucidate these results. In sum, a brief virtual nature intervention may be a feasible way of reducing negative affectivity and rumination and increase positive affect particularly in those with high SPS.

Attentional development can help us understand the inattentional blindness effect in visual search

IntroductionInattentional Blindness (IB) is the failure to notice an unexpected, usually salient stimulus while immersed in a different, often demanding attentional task. More than just a laboratory curiosity, IB is an important phenomenon to understand because it may be related to real-world errors such as missed “incidental findings” in medical image or security searches. Interest in individual differences in susceptibility to IB has produced a number of studies showing inconclusive results.MethodsHere, we tested IB in a sample of 277 participants, 4-25 years old performing a visual search task. On two critical trials, an unexpected letter and an unexpected word were presented among photorealistic objects.ResultsThere was a clear age effect with younger individuals showing higher IB levels. IB correlated with attentional control in visual search and with Continuous Performance Test-CPT for d-prime, response times and attentional shifting measures. These effects disappeared if age was controlled. There were no general effects of intelligence (IQ; RIST) or gender. Younger observers showed a negative correlation of IB for the word with the verbal components of the RIST IQ-proxy (no effect for the letter).DiscussionThese results support a relationship between IB and cognitive-developmental changes, showing that maturation of attention and executive processes can help us understand the intriguing phenomenon of (sometimes) missing what is in front of our eyes.

Investigation of the Roles of MTHFR (C677T and A1298C) and MMP-2 (-1306C>T ) Variations in Bladder Cancer Development.

Bladder cancer is a complex malignancy and has been associated with high morbidity. Since susceptibility to bladder cancer development differs between individuals, determining the roles of MTHFR and MMP-2 gene variations associated with this cancer is important for analyzing differences in individual susceptibility. In this study, we aimed to investigate the role of MTHFR and MMP-2 gene variations in the development of bladder cancer in the Thrace region of Turkey. One hundred seventy-nine blood samples were collected, including 98 patients with bladder cancer and 81 healthy controls. DNA extraction was carried out with blood samples. Polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism was applied to detect MTHFR C677T (rs 1801133), MTHFR A1298C (rs 1801131), and MMP-2 (-1306C>T) (rs 243865) gene variants. For the MTHFR A1298C gene variation, CC genotype was the genetic risk factor (P=.0001), while AC genotype was the protective factor (P< .0001) in the development of bladder cancer. For the MMP-2 (-1306C>T) gene variation, TT genotype (P < .0001) and T allele (P=.0006) were genetic risk factors, while AC genotype (P=.0009) was the protective factor in the development of bladder cancer. For C677T/A1298C gene variations, CC-CC combined genotype was the genetic risk factor (P=.009), while CT-AC and CC-AC combined genotypes were potential protective biomarkers (P=.013 and P < .001, respectively). In our study, TT genotype and T allele were determined as genetic risk factors for MMP-2 (-1306C>T) gene variation. For C677T/A1298C gene variations, CC- CC combined genotype was detected as the genetic risk factor in the development of bladder cancer.

Gut microbiome composition associates with corticosteroid treatment, morbidity, and senescence in Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha)

Pacific salmon experience prolonged elevation in corticosteroid hormones during important life history events including migration, reproduction, and senescence. These periods of elevated corticosteroids correspond with changes to immunity and energy metabolism; therefore, fish may be particularly vulnerable to mortality at these times. Recent studies found that stress-induced cortisol release associated with microbial community shifts in salmonids, raising the question of how longer-term corticosteroid dynamics that accompany life history transitions affect salmonid microbiomes. In this work, we experimentally evaluated the relationships between gut microbiome composition, chronically elevated corticosteroids, and mortality in juvenile Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha). We found that treatment with slow-release implants of the corticosteroids cortisol or dexamethasone resulted in changes to the gut microbiome. Morbidity was also associated with microbiome composition, suggesting that the gut microbiome reflects individual differences in susceptibility to opportunistic pathogens. Additionally, we analyzed a small number of samples from adult fish at various stages of senescence. Results from these samples suggest that microbiome composition associated with gut integrity, and that the microbial communities of corticosteroid treated juveniles shift in composition toward those of senescent adults. Overall, findings from this work indicate that the gut microbiome correlates with mortality risk during periods of chronic corticosteroid elevation.

Sleep, 24-Hour Activity Rhythms, and Cognitive Reserve: A Population-Based Study.

The cognitive reserve hypothesis aims to explain individual differences in susceptibility to the functional impact of dementia-related pathology. Previous research suggested that poor subjective sleep may be associated with a lower cognitive reserve. The objective was to investigate if actigraphy-estimated sleep and 24-hour activity rhythms are associated with cognitive reserve. This cross-sectional study included 1,002 participants from the Rotterdam Study (mean age: 65.0 years, standard deviation (SD): 7.1) who were assessed with actigraphy, five cognitive tests, and brain-MRI between 2009- 2014. Sleep and 24-hour activity rhythms were measured using actigraphy (mean days: 6.7, SD: 0.5). Cognitive reserve was defined as a latent variable that captures variance across cognitive tests, while adjusting for age, sex, education, total brain volume, intracranial volume, and white matter hyperintensity volume. Associations of sleep and 24-hour activity rhythms with cognitive reserve were assessed using structural equation models. Longer sleep onset latency (adjusted mean difference: - 0.16, 95% CI: - 0.24; - 0.08) and lower sleep efficiency (0.14, 95% CI: 0.05; 0.22) were associated with lower cognitive reserve. Total sleep time and wake after sleep onset were not significantly associated with cognitive reserve. After mutual adjustment, only the association of longer sleep onset latency remained significant (- 0.12, 95% CI: - 0.20; - 0.04). The 24-hour activity rhythm was not significantly associated with cognitive reserve. In conclusion, our study suggests that longer sleep onset latency is particularly associated with lower cognitive reserve. Future longitudinal work is needed to assess whether shortening the sleep onset latency could enhance cognitive reserve, in order to limit the susceptibility to the functional impact of dementia-related pathology.

Consistently Inconsistent Perceptual Illusions in Nonhuman Primates: The Importance of Individual Differences.

Perceptual illusions, and especially visual illusions, are of great interest not only to scientists, but to all people who experience them. From a scientific perspective, illusory visual experiences are informative about the nature of visual processes and the translation of sensory experiences to perceptual information that can then be used to guide behavior. It has been widely reported that some nonhuman species share these illusory experiences with humans. However, it is consistently the case that not all members of a species experience illusions in the same way. In fact, individual differences in susceptibility may be more typical than universal experiences of any given illusion. Focusing on research with the same nonhuman primates who were given a variety of perceptual illusion tasks, this "consistent inconsistency" is clearly evident. Additionally, this can even be true in assessments of human illusory experiences. Individual differences in susceptibility offer an important avenue for better understanding idiosyncratic aspects of visual perception, and the goal of isolating any possible universal principles of visual perception (in primates and beyond) should address these individual differences.

EARLY-LIFE EDUCATION AND COGNITIVE AGING: DOES CONTENT, LOCATION, AND HISTORICAL CONTEXT MATTER?

Abstract Life course and cognitive aging theories about the sources of subgroup and individual differences in susceptibility to cognitive impairment frequently highlight the significance of early-life education, defined in research by total years of school and highest degree. A more nuanced approach could shed light on why and for whom education matters for brain aging processes. For example, one year of school in the 1930s may not be the same as one year in the 1960s, or in different school types and states in this historical period. In addition, post- high school training and degrees differ in content. Each paper in this symposium uses early-life education history and late-life cognitive data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS). Speakers discuss what guided their selection of specific education content, location, contexts and analytic strategy. Williams-Farrelly asks how individuals characterized by privileged high school educational experiences in the period from 1930 to the 1960s benefited in terms of social mobility and later-life cognitive functioning. Nkwata, in contrast, focuses on early-life education experiences that potentially limit the skills acquired together with exposure to family adversity and stress. Yu utilizes sequence analysis to identify and examine the association between late-life cognition and variations in patterns of K-12 education defined by duration and order of racial/ethnic composition. Walsemann and colleagues ask if state-level differences in the timing and implementation of school desegregation policies explain Black-White disparities in the transition to cognitive impairment in the US South. The session concludes with an integrative discussion by Zahodne.

Adolescents with Few Friend Alternatives are Particularly Susceptible to Influence from Friends.

Friend influence in adolescence is well-documented, but the characteristics that contribute to individual differences in susceptibility to influence are not well understood. The present study tests the novel hypothesis that within a friend dyad, having fewer friends than one's partner (i.e., relative lack of alternatives) increases susceptibility to influence as it reduces dissimilarity and thereby promotes compatibility. Drawn from diverse California (USA) public middle schools, participants were 678 adolescents (58% girls) in reciprocated friendships that were stable from the fall to the spring of sixth grade (M = 11.53 years old). Longitudinal Actor-Partner Interdependence Models assessed peer influence, operationalized as individual change in the direction of increased friend similarity. Consistent with the hypothesis, partners with fewer friends were influenced by partners with relatively more friends in self-reported social anxiety and somatic complaints, as well as teacher-reported academic engagement and prosocial behavior. Academic engagement was the only domain wherein partners with more friends were also influenced by partners with relatively fewer friends. For those with few friends, conformity (i.e., becoming more similar to a partner) can be an important strategy to promote compatibility for strengthening existing friendships.