Individual Differences In Need Research Articles

Effects of Suspicion on Willingness to Engage in Systematic Processing of Persuasive Arguments

ABSTRACT Two experimental studies tested the influence of suspicion on willingness to engage in a systematic analysis of arguments presented to support the introduction of a new comprehensive exam at public universities. The effect of suspicion differed depending on whether it was defined as a source feature or a receptor's personal disposition. Suspicion aroused by a specific source inhibited the systematic processing of the message, overwhelming individual differences in need for cognition. Suspicion as a receptors' stable disposition had the opposite effect. Highly suspicious receptors engaged in a more systematic processing of arguments. Although dispositional suspicion and need for cognition were correlated, the first variable had a significant effect beyond the effect of need for cognition.

Gender moderates the impact of need for structure on social beliefs: Implications for ethnocentrism and authoritarianism

The present research examines the interplay between individual differences in need for structure, social beliefs, and gender. It is well documented that need for structure, that is, a preference for structure and simplicity in one's thinking, predicts authoritarianism and ethnocentrism. Further, women tend to score lower in authoritarianism and ethnocentrism than men. Although there seem to be no gender differences in need for structure, the present research hypothesizes that the association between need for structure and social beliefs is stronger for men than for women. This hypothesis comes from the observation that, all else being equal, men tend to think more about the domain of beliefs such as authoritarianism and ethnocentrism, which should strengthen the relationship between men's cognitive needs and their social beliefs. The hypothesis is also motivated by the finding that, more than men, women often give priority to caring and compassion when forming beliefs about outgroups. This should weaken the link between women's cognitive needs and their social beliefs. Three studies conducted in the USA (n = 398) and one study conducted in Germany (n = 112) examined whether gender moderated the influence of need for structure on authoritarianism and racism. Using a variety of measures, need for structure predicted authoritarianism and racism for men, but not for women. The discussion focuses on the implications of the present findings for the relationship between cognitive orientations and social beliefs. It is argued that research on cognitive orientation and social beliefs needs to take gender into account to improve its accuracy of prediction.

Safety Climate and Relational Conflict in the Eyes of Team Members: Examining the Role of Need for Closure

This study was aimed at examining the safety climate and relational conflict within teams at the individual level. A sample of 372 respondents, divided into 50 teams, was used to test our hypothesis. It was proposed – and discovered – that team members' individual differences in need for closure mitigated the negative relationship between perceptions of team safety climate and team relational conflict. The implications of our findings and the study's limitations are discussed.

The Relationship between Perceptions of Safety Climate and Relational Conflict within R&D Teams: Taking Need for Closure as a Moderator

This study examines the safety climate for innovation within teams at the individual level. A sample of 165 respondents in 25 R&D teams was used to test our hypothesis. We proposed and found that team members’ individual differences in need for closure mitigated the negative relationship between perceptions of team safety climate and team relational conflict. We discuss the implications of our findings and the study’s limitations.

Need and Ability to Achieve Closure: Relationships with symptoms of psychopathology

Recent literature has asserted that excessive choice in everyday life may pose a burden on mental health. The present research further qualifies this claim by focusing on the role of stable individual differences in Need for (cognitive) Closure (NFC) and Ability to Achieve Closure (AAC), which tap into the cognitive-motivational aspects of decision making and choice. The effects of these two distinct components of cognitive closure on mental health and symptoms of psychopathology were investigated in a non-clinical sample ( N = 304). Results from regression analyses showed strong opposite effects of NFC (positive) and AAC (negative), which independently predicted scores on the Symptom Checklist-90 and its various facet scales, together explaining up to 29% of the variance. These results attest to the idea that individual differences in the need and ability to achieve cognitive closure play a pivotal role in the potentially detrimental effects of excessive choice on mental health. Moreover, the opposite effects of NFC and AAC clarify the ambivalent findings from previous clinical studies on psychopathology that confounded these two components of cognitive closure and suggest promising directions for clinical research and therapy.

Authoritarianism and its relationship with intuitive-experiential cognitive style and heuristic processing

Two studies examined the relationship between authoritarianism, cognitive style and heuristic processing. Focusing on Epstein’s (2003) cognitive-experiential self-theory, Study 1 shows that authoritarianism is related to Epstein’s dimension of faith in intuition, but not need for cognition, even when controlling for individual differences in need for structure. Study 2 confirms that authoritarianism is related to greater heuristic processing. The discussion suggests ways in which individual differences in cognitive style and heuristic processing may account for established effects of authoritarianism.

Should Persuasion Be Affective or Cognitive? The Moderating Effects of Need for Affect and Need for Cognition

Three experiments tested the hypothesis that need for affect and need for cognition influence receptivity to affect- and cognition-based persuasive messages. Experiment 1 found that an affective message elicited more positive attitudes among individuals high in need for affect and low in need for cognition, whereas a cognitive message elicited more positive attitudes among individuals low in need for affect and high in need for cognition. Experiment 2 found that individual differences in need for affect influenced receptivity to an affect-based (but not cognition-based) message, whereas individual differences in need for cognition influenced receptivity to a cognition-based (but not affect-based) message. Experiment 3 found that individual differences in need for affect were associated with increased recognition of information from an affect-based (but not cognition-based) message, whereas individual differences in need for cognition were associated with increased recognition of information from a cognition-based (but not affect-based) message. Overall, the studies point to the importance of individual differences in need for affect and need for cognition in understanding how individuals respond to different types of persuasive messages.

Individual differences in need for closure and voting behaviour

Two longitudinal studies investigated the relationship between dispositional need for closure and voting behaviour. It was hypothesized that need for closure was linearly related with voting for more conservative Italian parties. The first study ( N = 243) was conducted during the 2004 European elections. The second study ( N = 489) was conducted during the 2005 Italian Regional elections. Participants completed a measure of need for closure approximately four weeks before election day. After the elections participants reported their vote. Results of both studies provide evidence for a linear trend connecting need for closure and voting for conservative parties. Findings were discussed in light of the Conservatism as Motivated Social Cognition approach.

Measuring need for closure in classroom learners

Need for closure, as formulated by Kruglanski and colleagues [Kruglanski, A. W. (1990). Lay epistemic theory in social-cognitive psychology. Psychological Inquiry, 1(3), 181–197; Kruglanski, A. W., & Webster, D. M. (1996). Motivated closing of the mind: Seizing and freezing. Psychological Review, 103, 263–283; Webster, D. M., & Kruglanski, A. W. (1994). Individual differences in need for cognitive closure. J ournal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(6), 1049–1062], refers to the motivated tendency to seek structure, simplify complex information, and avoid ambiguity. In this article, we argue that this motive may impact classroom learning in important ways and introduce a self-report measure of need for closure situated in the classroom learning environment. Psychometric properties of the new measure are assessed in multiple samples using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. Correlations between the new measure and existing indicators of cognitive closure, as well as variables known to influence motivation and academic achievement, support our assertions regarding the association between need for closure and academic functioning while also providing evidence for the construct validity of the measure. Finally, internal consistency and test–retest reliability suggest that the new measure functions as a reliable measure of need for closure within the classroom.

The influence of tactile input on the evaluation of retail product offerings

Retailers can benefit from allowing customers to touch their products. The influence of tactile input on evaluation, however, remains undemonstrated in the literature. In four experiments, effects of tactile input were observed for product categories wherein tactile input was diagnostic, and depended on product quality. While this effect was moderated by individual differences in need for touch when there was no opportunity for multiple product comparisons, there was no support for a mediating role of affect. Implications for retailing theory and practice are discussed.

The role of cognitive inhibition in motivation toward closure

This research examines the role of cognitive inhibition in individual differences in need for cognitive closure. It was expected that cognitive inhibition is related to need for closure and its four facets (preference for order, predictability, intolerance of ambiguity and closed-mindedness) (Experiment 1). It was also assumed that under cognitive load, high need for closure participants would show an increased level of inhibition to compare to the low need for closure ones (Experiment 2). Across these experiments, individual differences in need for closure correspond to the ability to handle irrelevant information efficiently; that individuals scored high (vs. low) in need for closure revealed this process more strongly, also in a more cognitively demanding condition.

Need for cognition and false memory in the Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm

Two experiments investigated whether false recognition in the Deese–Roediger–McDermott (DRM) paradigm is mediated by individual differences in need for cognition. In Experiment 1, participants were presented with word lists composed of associates which converge on a non-presented critical word. On a subsequent recognition test, high need for cognition participants falsely recognized a greater proportion of critical words as having been previously studied than did low need for cognition participants. Experiment 2 replicated Experiment 1, and also tested a manipulation of list strength. Word lists used were either strong or weak in terms of eliciting the critical item. These experiments show that individual differences in approach to information processing tasks can affect the rate of false memory elicited in the DRM task.

Need for Cognition and Expectations as Determinants of Affective Experience

The Affective Expectation Model (AEM; Wilson, T. D., Lisle, D. J., Kraft, D., & Wetzel, C. G. (1989). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 519-530) proposes that expectations can generate both assimilation and contrast effects in affective experience. Specifically, when an experience is inconsistent with an affective expectation, and that discrepancy is noticed, the model predicts that affective reactions will be contrasted with the expectation. When the discrepancy is not noticed, it is anticipated that affective reactions will be assimilated toward the expectation. These studies examine the possibility that such assimilation and contrast effects in affective experience are moderated by individual differences in need for cognition. In two experiments, individuals varying in their level of need for cognition were asked to watch one of the two relatively unfunny film clips. We predicted that, when given a positive expectation for the film clip, individuals high in need for cognition would detect the discrepancy and contrast their affective reactions. Conversely, it was predicted that, in this same situation, individuals low in need for cognition would overlook the discrepancy and assimilate their affective reactions to the positive expectation. The results of both experiments supported these predictions and supplied further evidence for the AEM. Theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed.

Effects of Solution Elicitation Aids and Need for Cognition on the Generation of Solutions to Ill-Structured Problems

Numerous techniques have been proposed to assist problem solvers in the solution generation process. We empirically examined the effectiveness of a solution elicitation technique based on the presentation of problem objectives and also examined whether the technique was effective across individual differences in need for cognition (NC). We found that when two conflicting objectives were presented successively, more solutions, more categories of solutions, and more effective solutions were generated than when the same two objectives were presented simultaneously or not at all. However, the results indicated that effective solutions may be more efficiently generated by considering objectives simultaneously. Need for cognition was positively related to measures of divergent thinking, and the presentation of objectives was particularly effective as a solution elicitation aid for individuals with low NC. Implications for creative problem-solving research and practice are discussed.

Individual Differences in Need for Cognition and Complex Problem Solving

This article reports an empirical study investigating the relation between Need for cognition of individuals and their effectiveness in solving complex problems. A complex, long-duration, computer-simulated, multifaceted cognitive task was presented to 45 managers from a very large Indian metal-processing unit. Problem-solving effectiveness was assessed on success, consistency, and crisis-free nature. Need for cognition was assessed using the 18-item, short-form need-for-cognition scale. Results show that need for cognition of individuals has significant positive association with effectiveness in solving complex problems. Individuals with a higher need for cognition: (a) were more successful in solving the problem, (b) collected information and made decisions on more aspects of the problem, and (c) faced fewer crises during the process. Some curvilinear effects were also observed. Results further indicate that exposure strengthens the development of need for cognition.

Please, let's get an answer?any answer: Need for consumer cognitive closure

Conceptually, it is argued that individual differences in need for cognitive closure, which stem from Kruglanski's theory of lay epistemics, provides a framework for studying various aspects of consumer judgment and decision making. However, methodologically, the need for cognitive closure scale has not demonstrated good measurement properties and has generated controversy. To improve the measurement quality of the scale for individual differences in the need for cognitive closure, the authors carry out a large-scale data collection and measure validation exercise. To demonstrate the usefulness of this individual difference variable in a consumer context, the authors test hypotheses concerning consumer search behavior for cars and televisions. The results are encouraging and provide initial support for the utility of this framework in consumer judgment and decision making. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Moderating Effects of Need for Cognition on Responses to Positively versus Negatively Framed Advertising Messages

A 2 × 2 × 2 experimental study was conducted to investigate the moderating effect of consumer individual differences in need for cognition (NFC) and source credibility on the processing of framed advertising messages. The authors used a student sample (n = 160) and three dependent variables: product attractiveness, willingness to purchase, and perceived performance. Results indicate NFC influenced the strength of framed messages and source credibility effects in consumer responses to ad messages. Specifically, the message framing effect was more salient for low- NFC subjects than high- NFC subjects. Further, low- NFC subjects were influenced more by the negatively framed messages than by the positively framed messages. Although the hypothesized source credibility main effect did not materialize, low- NFC subjects responded the least favorably to messages presented by non-expert sources. Other findings and implications are discussed.

Need for Cognition: An Individual Differences Approach to Understanding Warning Effectiveness

Research has shown that trait individual differences in need for cognition influence the evaluation of persuasive messages. Product warning instructions can be considered a form of persuasive message because a goal of warnings is to change attitudes and alter behavior. This research investigated the relationship between need for cognition scores and rating and recall measures of warning quality and effectiveness. Product warning instructions were presented with and without injury outcome statistics, which may act as a heuristic cue in the persuasion process. Results showed that individuals higher in need for cognition recalled more warnings that contained statistics and judged all types of warnings as more important. The potential for individual differences to help explain warning effectiveness is discussed.

Applications of a theoretic model of information exposure to health interventions.

A theoretic model of attention to messages has been used to guide an extensive series of laboratory and field experiments involving the mass media and, more recently, classroom instruction and health interventions. The model draws on individual differences in need for novelty as a basis both for identifying target audiences most likely to engage in a number of health-risk behaviors, such as drug and alcohol abuse and risky sex, and as a guide for designing messages to attract and hold the attention of these same individuals, who make up the prime target audience for many campaigns. These strategies have been successful in bringing about changes in attitudes and behavioral intentions in experimental studies, and in reaching at-risk audience segments in field studies through novel televised public service announcements placed in appropriate television programming.

NEED FOR COGNITION AND THOUGHT-INDUCED ATTITUDE POLARIZATION: EXAMINING POSSIBLE DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS

Two sets of research demonstrate that individual differences in need for cognition moderate the effect of thought on attitude polarization. However, one set indicates that a low need for cognition is associated with greater thought-induced attitude polarization, whereas the other set indicates that a high need for cognition is associated with greater thought-induced attitude polarization. The present study provides evidence that the former, but not the latter, pattern of results may be due to demand characteristics.