Individual Differences In Behavior Research Articles

Estrogen-mediated individual differences in female rat voluntary running behavior.

Regular exercise has numerous health benefits, but the human population displays significant variability in exercise participation. Rodent models, such as voluntary wheel running (VWR) in rats, can provide insight into the underlying mechanisms of exercise behavior and its regulation. In this study, we focused on the role of estrogen on VWR in female rats. Female rats run more than males, and we aimed to determine to what extent running levels in females were regulated by estrogen signaling. The running behavior of rats (duration, speed, and total distance run) was measured under normal physiological conditions, ovariectomy (OVX), and estrogen replacement in an OVX background. Results show cyclic variations in running linked to the estrous cycle. Ovariectomy markedly reduced running and eliminated the cyclic pattern. Estrogen replacement through estradiol benzoate (EB) injections and osmotic minipumps reinstated running activity to pre-OVX levels and restored the cyclic pattern. Importantly, individual differences and ranking are preserved such that high versus low runners before OVX remain high and low runners after treatment. Further analysis revealed that individual variation in running distance was primarily caused by rats running different speeds, but rats also varied in running duration. However, it is noteworthy that this model also displays features distinct from estrogen-driven running behavior under physiological conditions, notably a delayed onset and a broader duration of running activity. Collectively, this estrogen causality VWR model presents a unique opportunity to investigate sex-specific mechanisms that control voluntary physical activity.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study investigates estrogen's role in voluntary wheel running (VWR) behavior in female rats. Female rats exhibit greater running than males, with estrogen signaling regulating this activity. The estrous cycle influences running, whereas ovariectomy reduces it, and estrogen replacement restores it, maintaining individual differences under all conditions. Both running speed and duration contribute to VWR variations. These findings emphasize individual estrogen regulation in female exercise and provide an estrogen replacement animal model for investigating neurobiological underpinnings that drive voluntary exercise behavior.

Exploration behavior differs between Darwin’s finch species and predicts territory defense and hatching success

Darwin’s finch species in the Galápagos Islands are famously distinguished by their morphology but less attention has been given to behavioral differences between species. In this study, we compared behavior between four Darwin’s finch species on Floreana Island: small ground finch (Geospiza fuliginosa), medium ground finch (G. fortis), small tree finch (Camarhynchus parvulus), and medium tree finch (C. pauper). After capturing birds using mist-nets, we measured three behavioral traits: (1) boldness during human handling, (2) exploration in a novel environment, and (3) aggressiveness towards their mirror image. First, we found that ground finches were bolder and more exploratory than tree finches, consistent with their distinct ecological niches on Floreana Island and with the theoretical prediction that diet generalists should be less wary of novelty. Second, we tested the ecological validity of these behavioral variables at the individual level by relating them to territory defense behavior and breeding success. We found that males that were more exploratory in the novel environment also reacted more aggressively to a simulated territory intruder and showed lower offspring hatching success during the breeding season. Hence, our findings support previous work showing behavioral differences between Darwin’s finch species and also suggest pathways by which behavioral differences among individuals might influence fitness.Significance statementClosely-related species that overlap in their geographical range may differ in their morphology and/or behavior, allowing them to occupy different ecological niches. In this study, we explored behavioral differences between four Darwin’s finch species on Floreana Island in the Galápagos Archipelago. We found clear interspecies differences in behavior, with the ground finches struggling more often during handling (boldness) and visiting more sectors in a novel environment (exploration) compared to the tree finches. After birds were released, we continued to observe a subset of male finches in the wild. An individual’s exploration behavior significantly predicted both its aggressive response to a territory intruder (simulated using song playback) and offspring hatching success during the breeding season. This suggests that individual differences in exploration behavior can potentially be used as a proxy for territorial behavior in the wild and may also predict fitness outcomes.

When slow explorers are fast: Personality‐related differences in timing of migration in Red Knots (Calidris canutus)

The timing of migration varies significantly among individuals, even within populations sharing breeding sites. Consistent individual behavioural differences, known as personality traits, have been linked to variation in movement behaviour. However, little attention has been given to investigating whether personality traits can explain such variation in the timing of migration. We studied post‐breeding migration of Red Knots Calidris canutus islandica breeding in the High Arctic and wintering in European coastal areas. We captured Red Knots in the Dutch Wadden Sea, a main non‐breeding and moulting site, and assessed their exploration behaviour, a personality trait, before releasing them with colour‐rings. We first investigated whether arrival timing in marine areas was associated with exploration speed. Secondly, we asked whether slow explorers were more likely to fly non‐stop to the Wadden Sea compared with fast explorers, as faster explorers were expected to move more and visit more staging sites. To determine arrival timing in marine non‐breeding areas and non‐stop flights to the Wadden Sea, we analysed isotope signatures in blood samples collected after capture, as these differ between the terrestrial breeding grounds (arthropod diet) and marine non‐breeding and moulting sites (benthic invertebrate diet). Thirdly, we estimated arrival time in the Wadden Sea based on primary moult progress, allowing us to examine the relationship between arrival timing estimated from isotope values and the onset of moult. Our findings revealed that slower exploring Red Knots departed earlier from the breeding site and were more likely to fly non‐stop to the Wadden Sea than were faster exploring individuals. Arrival timing to marine areas as estimated from isotope analyses predicted arrival timing in the Wadden Sea (via moult progress) but this relationship exhibited significant variation, possibly due to individual differences in the use of staging sites en route. By migrating early, slower explorers can better outpace the aerial predators also arriving at the Wadden Sea moulting site and thereby reduce mortality risk due to predation.

Individual variability in functional connectivity of human auditory cortex.

Individual variability in functional connectivity underlies individual differences in cognition and behaviors, yet its association with functional specialization in the auditory cortex remains elusive. Using resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging data from the Human Connectome Project, this study was designed to investigate the spatial distribution of auditory cortex individual variability in its whole-brain functional network architecture. An inherent hierarchical axis of the variability was discerned, which radiates from the medial to lateral orientation, with the left auditory cortex demonstrating more pronounced variations than the right. This variability exhibited a significant correlation with the variations in structural and functional metrics in the auditory cortex. Four auditory cortex subregions, which were identified from a clustering analysis based on this variability, exhibited unique connectional fingerprints and cognitive maps, with certain subregions showing specificity to speech perception functional activation. Moreover, the lateralization of the connectional fingerprint exhibited a U-shaped trajectory across the subregions. These findings emphasize the role of individual variability in functional connectivity in understanding cortical functional organization, as well as in revealing its association with functional specialization from the activation, connectome, and cognition perspectives.

Examining personality dimensions in rats using a caregiver questionnaire

Measures of individual behavioural differences (personality) are highly valuable in many areas of ethology, particularly studies of animal emotion and welfare. However, there are limitations to current behavioural tests of personality. Caregiver questionnaires may provide a complementary approach to overcome some of these limitations and provide a richer insight into personality. Drawing on previous studies, we developed a questionnaire in which caregivers were asked to rate the extent to which a given adjective/term described a rat under their care. We then used factor analysis to identify personality dimensions and assess whether those dimensions mapped to rat sex, rat age, number of companions, predator exposure, or owner experience. We obtained usable data from 296 rat caregivers and identified six personality dimensions: tameness, shyness, liveliness, interspecific sociability, inquisitiveness, aggressiveness. These dimensions are, with the exception of ‘inquisitiveness’, in line with previous studies and the broader literature on personality in non-human animals. With the exception of shyness, which was significantly associated with sex and owner experience, we found no strong evidence for a relationship between the personality dimensions and age, sex, number of companions, predator exposure, or owner experience. Although there remain important issues to be answered by future research, such as whether there is interobserver agreement in personality ratings and the extent to which the personality ratings are repeatable over time, the present study indicates that questionnaires of caregivers could in future provide a valuable tool to assess personality in rats.

The role of neural reward sensitivity in the longitudinal relations between parents’ familism values and Latinx American youth’s prosocial behaviors

Past research suggests that parents’ familism values play a positive role in Latinx American youth’s prosocial tendencies. However, little is known about how individual differences in youth’s neural development may contribute to this developmental process. Therefore, using two-wave longitudinal data of 1916 early adolescents (mean age = 9.90 years; 50% girls) and their parents (mean age = 38.43 years; 90% mothers) from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development study, this pre-registered study took a biopsychosocial approach to examine the moderating role of youth’s neural reward sensitivity in the link between parents’ familism values and youth’s prosocial behaviors. Results showed that parents’ familism values were associated with increased prosocial behaviors among youth two years later, controlling for baseline prosocial behaviors and demographic covariates. Notably, parents’ familism values played a larger role in promoting youth’s prosocial behaviors among youth who showed lower ventral striatum activation during reward anticipation. Moreover, such association between parents’ familism values and youth’s later prosocial behaviors was stronger among youth who showed lower levels of prosocial behaviors initially. Taken together, the findings highlight individual differences in neurobiological development and baseline prosocial behaviors as markers of sensitivity to cultural environments with regard to Latinx American youth’s prosocial development.

Brain connectivity patterns associated with individual differences in the access to experience-near personal semantics: a resting-state fMRI study

It has been proposed that a continuum of specificity exists between episodic and semantic autobiographical memory. Personal semantics have been theorized to situate intermediately on this continuum, with more “experience-near” personal semantics (enPS) closer to the episodic end. We used individual differences in behavior as a model to investigate brain networks associated with the access to episodic autobiographical (EAM) and enPS information, assessing the relation between performance in the EAM and enPS conditions of the Autobiographical Fluency Task (AFT) and intrinsic brain connectivity. Results of an intrinsic connectivity contrast analysis showed that the global connectivity of two clusters in the left and right posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) was predicted by performance in the enPS conditions. Moreover, enPS scores predicted the connectivity strength of the right PCC with the bilateral anterior hippocampus (aHC), anterior middle temporal gyrus (aMTG) and medial orbitofrontal cortex, and the left aMTG and PCC. enPS scores also predicted the connectivity strength of the left PCC with the bilateral HC and MTG. The network highlighted involves parts of the core and of the dorsal medial subsystems of the Default Mode Network, in line with the proposal that enPS represents an intermediate entity between episodic and semantic memory.

Can eating behaviour traits be explained by underlying, latent factors? An exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis

Eating Behaviour Traits (EBTs) are psychological constructs developed to explain patterns of eating behaviour, including factors that motivate people to (over or under) eat. There is a need to align and clarify their unique contributions and harmonise the understanding they offer for human eating behaviour. Therefore, the current study examined whether 18 commonly cited EBTs could be explained by underlying, latent factors (domains of eating behaviour). An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was used to identify latent factors, and these factors were validated using a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). 1279 participants including the general public and members of a weight management programme were included in the analysis (957 females, 317 males, 3 others, 2 prefer not to say), with a mean age of 54 years (median = 57 years, SD = 12.03) and a mean BMI of 31.93 kg/m2 (median = 30.86, SD = 6.00). The participants completed 8 questionnaires which included 18 commonly cited EBTs and the dataset was split at random with a 70/30 ratio to conduct the EFA (n = 893) and CFA (n = 383). The results supported a four-factor model which indicated that EBTs can be organised into four domains: reactive, restricted, emotional, and homeostatic eating. The four-factor model also significantly predicted self-reported BMI and weight change. Future research should test whether this factor structure is replicated in more diverse populations, and including other EBTs, to advance these domains of eating as a unifying framework for studying individual differences in human eating behaviour.

Differences in Approach and Avoidance Motivation Sensitivities Predicting Participation and Performance in Strength Sport

Abstract Cusimano, K, Freeman, P, Moran, J, and Yamaguchi, M. Differences in approach and avoidance motivation sensitivities predicting participation and performance in strength sport. J Strength Cond Res 38(1): 180–184, 2024—Gray's Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory proposes that individual differences in behavior are due to the sensitivity to 2 brain systems: the behavioral inhibition system (BIS), which regulates aversive emotions to threatening stimuli, and the behavioral approach system (BAS), which regulates positive emotions toward rewarding or nonpunishing stimuli. The current study investigated whether BIS and BAS sensitivity predicts participation and performance in strength sports. A sample of 177 competitive strength athletes (male = 148; female = 29; mean age = 28.68; SD = 6.24 years) and 178 control participants (male = 89; female = 89; mean age = 29.39; SD = 7.42) completed the BIS/BAS scale, with strength athletes also providing their Wilks scores as a measure of sporting performance. Independent t tests showed significantly higher BIS (MD = 2.37, p = 0.003, 95% CI [0.79, 3.94], d = 0.31) and total BAS (MD = 11.71, p < 0.001, 95% CI [9.26, 14.15], d = 1.00) sensitivity in strength athletes than individuals in the control group. A 3-step hierarchical regression analysis revealed that the number of training years (β = 0.506, p < 0 .001), BIS (β = −203, p = 0.005) and BAS drive (β = 0.188, p = 0.012) made significant unique contributions to predicting the Wilks score, with no significant contributions of age, sex, BAS fun seeking, and BAS reward responsiveness. The findings indicate that the overall reward sensitivity (total BAS score) and reward seeking (BAS drive) are associated positively with participation and performance in strength sports, respectively. Given the association of these brain systems to addiction and other psychiatric disorders, the findings could have implications in psychiatric treatment and sporting recruitment.

Group phenotypic composition drives task performances in ants.

Differences in individual behaviour within a group can give rise to functional dissimilarities between groups, particularly in social animals. However, how individual behavioural phenotypes translate into the group phenotype remains unclear. Here, we investigate whether individual behavioural type affects group performance in a eusocial species, the ant Aphaenogaster senilis. We measured individual behavioural traits and created groups of workers with similar behavioural type, either high-exploratory or low-exploratory workers. We tested these groups in four different, ecologically relevant, tasks: reaction to an intruder, prey retrieval from a maze, nest relocation and tool use. We show that, compared to groups of low-exploratory workers, groups of high-exploratory workers were more aggressive towards intruders, more efficient in collecting prey, faster in nest relocation and more likely to perform tool use. Our results demonstrate a strong link between individual and collective behaviour in ants. This supports the 'behavioural type hypothesis' for group dynamics, which suggests that an individual's behaviour in a social environment reflects its own behavioural type. The average behavioural phenotype of a group can therefore be predicted from the behavioural types of individual group members.

The role of cognitive control and referential complexity on adults' choice of referring expressions: Testing and expanding the referential complexity scale.

This study aims to advance our understanding of the nature and source(s) of individual differences in pragmatic language behavior over the adult lifespan. Across four story continuation experiments, we probed adults' (N = 496 participants, ages 18-82) choice of referential forms (i.e., names vs. pronouns to refer to the main character). Our manipulations were based on Fossard et al.'s (2018) scale of referential complexity which varies according to the visual properties of the scene: low complexity (one character), intermediate complexity (two characters of different genders), and high complexity (two characters of the same gender). Since pronouns signal topic continuity (i.e., that the discourse will continue to be about the same referent), the use of pronouns is expected to decrease as referential complexity increases. The choice of names versus pronouns, therefore, provides insight into participants' perception of the topicality of a referent, and whether that varies by age and cognitive capacity. In Experiment 1, we used the scale to test the association between referential choice, aging, and cognition, identifying a link between older adults' switching skills and optimal referential choice. In Experiments 2-4, we tested novel manipulations that could impact the scale and found both the TIMING of a competitor referent's presence and EMPHASIS placed on competitors modulated referential choice, leading us to refine the scale for future use. Collectively, Experiments 1-4 highlight what type of contextual information is prioritized at different ages, revealing older adults' preserved sensitivity to (visual) scene complexity but reduced sensitivity to linguistic prominence cues, compared to younger adults. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Decoding the Fast Fashion Phenomenon in Vietnam: A Multidimensional Analysis of Impulse Buying Dynamics and Price Sensitivity in Consumer Purchase Behavior

This study investigates the factors influencing impulse buying behavior in fast fashion consumption, focusing on the roles of fashion involvement, perceived value, store environment, and price sensitivity. Employing a mixed-method approach, we combined structural equation modeling (SEM) and fuzzy-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fsQCA) to analyze data collected from 412 fast fashion consumers. The SEM results reveal that fashion involvement, perceived value, and store environment positively influence impulse buying behavior, with fashion involvement exhibiting the strongest effect. Price sensitivity moderates the relationships between fashion involvement and impulse buying, as well as between perceived value and impulse buying. The fsQCA findings complement these results by identifying multiple configurations of factors leading to high impulse buying behavior. Our research contributes to the existing literature by providing a comprehensive model of impulse buying in the fast fashion context, integrating multiple factors and their interactions. The use of both SEM and fsQCA methodologies offers a more nuanced understanding of the complex relationships among the variables. Furthermore, our findings on the moderating role of price sensitivity add to the growing body of literature on individual differences in consumer behavior. These insights have practical implications for fast fashion retailers in developing effective marketing strategies and enhancing the shopping experience to encourage impulse purchases.

Complexities of consistent individual behavioral differences in effective wildlife management

Complexities of consistent individual behavioral differences in effective wildlife management

AH Share Price Spread: Investors Sentiment Study

This paper develops a comprehensive index of sentiment differences that can accurately describe the differences in investor sentiment between mainland China and Hong Kong to explain the higher premium of A-shares more than H-shares in the long run from the perspective of market differences in individual investor behavior. The results show that the higher the level of optimism of the A-share market relative to the H-share market, the higher the level of A-H share premium; Research shows that investors are more susceptible to the hazards of emotional elements during the market downturn phase, that emotional differences have an amplifying effect on the explanatory power of AH share premiums, and the higher the institutional share of stocks differences emotional, the more substantial explanatory power on AH share premiums. We should take notice of the critical role of irrational factors in price fluctuations and have certain psychological expectations about the fluctuations of stock prices caused by irrational factors.

Suicidal Behavior in Eating Disorders

Many studies have shown that people with eating disorders have higher rates of suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, and completed suicide than the general population. One of the diseases with the highest suicide rate among psychiatric disorders is anorexia nervosa. Some hypotheses have been proposed to explain possible causes of increased suicidal behavior in eating disorders. Some conditions common to eating disorders and suicidal behavior, such as dissatisfaction with the body and interoceptive deficits, have been cited. It has been conclusively shown that psychiatric comorbidity, especially the co-diagnosis of depression, increases the risk of suicide in patients with eating disorders. However, increased suicidal behavior in eating disorders cannot be explained by comorbidity alone. The interpersonal psychological theory of suicide (IPTS), developed by Joiner, aims to understand why people commit suicide and to explain the differences in individual suicidal behavior. Some researchers have thought that the increased suicidal behavior of people with eating disorders, especially anorexia nervosa patients, is expected from the perspective of IPTS. The compensatory behaviors of patients with eating disorders, such as vomiting or chronic restrictive food intake, are painful and challenging actions for the body. It can be considered that repeated encounters with painful and challenging experiences form a habit in the individual and reduce pain avoidance. When viewed from the IPTS perspective, decreased pain avoidance may explain the increased suicide attempts and completed suicides of individuals. Clinicians working with eating disorder patients must conduct regular and comprehensive assessments of suicide. Comorbidities such as major depression, anxiety disorder, and substance-use disorder should not be overlooked in patients with eating disorders and should be taken seriously.

The diffusion path of distributed photovoltaic power generation technology driven by individual behavior

The widespread adoption of distributed photovoltaic (PV) power generation technologies among electricity consumers is a crucial factor in enabling the power system's low-carbon transition. While extensive research has explored consumers' willingness to adopt this technology, prior studies have primarily focused on static psychological factors. This study, however, takes a heterogeneous behavioral perspective by examining the dynamic effects of individual behavioral interactions on technology diffusion. Utilizing behavior-driven simulation technology, we developed a diffusion model pertaining to photovoltaic power generation technology. The model enhances the explanatory capacity and predictive accuracy of subjects' behavioral choices by quantifying the effects of adoption scale and external economic interventions. Our simulation results indicate that residential environment constraints, resulting from individual behavioral differences, can influence the diffusion potential of technology. Furthermore, non-mandatory promotion methods are more effective in enhancing user adoption willingness. Interestingly, we found that free installation interventions tend to reduce the diffusion effect in later stages and should not be implemented in isolation. These insights can contribute to enhancing the diffusion of distributed PV power generation technology and furthering the development of low-carbon electricity.

The Reasoning through Evidence versus Advice (EvA) Scale: Scale Development and Validation

Our well-being can improve when people heed evidence rather than simply follow familiar or charismatic advisors who neglect evidence. We developed the Reasoning through Evidence versus Advice (EvA) scale to measure individual differences in reasoning through evidence like science and statistics versus following advisors such as politicians and celebrities. No existing scales directly measure these tendencies; moreover, it was theoretically unknown whether they reflect a single dimension (from evidence- to advice-based) or distinct tendencies to value or distrust each. Our scale validation process included qualitative interviews and four studies that involved 1583 respondents (753 college graduates, 830 non-college graduates) in which we conducted exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses and tests of convergent validity, discriminant validity, and measurement invariance by gender and education. This process yielded a 16-item EvA scale with four dimensions: Pro-evidence, Anti-evidence, Pro-advice, and Anti-advice. In assessing criterion validity, these tendencies identified individual differences in important, real-world attitudes and behaviors, including susceptibility to health misinformation, adherence to CDC guidelines on social distancing, confidence in the COVID vaccine, science curiosity, and religiosity. The EvA scale extends our understanding of individual differences in reasoning tendencies that shape critical attitudes, decisions, and behaviors and can help promote informed decisions.

Evaluation of decision-making behavior under uncertainty in capuchin monkeys (Sapajus apella) and humans (Homo sapiens) using a modified Balloon Analogue Risk Task.

Many animals, including humans, must make decisions when outcomes involve risk and/or ambiguity. To explore the evolutionary roots of decision making when outcomes are unknown, we modified the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) for use with tufted capuchin monkeys (Sapajus [Cebus] apella), creating the Primate Analogue Risk Task (PART). Using both the BART and the PART, we first compared human performance across the two tasks using analogous parameters. Humans' performance on the two tasks was positively correlated. Next, we tested capuchin monkeys' performance on the PART to assess their decision-making strategies in the context of ambiguity. Secondarily, although it was not the main goal of the study, this allowed us to look at species differences between capuchins' and humans' performance. Finally, we investigated the influence of prior experience on human and capuchin decision-making behavior. Neither capuchins nor humans behaved differently following an unsuccessful trial compared to a successful trial. We found individual differences in capuchin monkeys' choice behavior, though as a whole they demonstrated a pattern of reward maximization over time. Finally, as a species, capuchins had lower PART risk scores than humans. This paradigm presents a useful way to assess behavior in a context with uncertain outcomes using a comparative approach. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Kreativnost i izvedba Simonova zadatka

The aim of this study was to examine performance in the Simon task regarding individual differences in creative behavior measured by The Inventory of Creative Activities and Achievements (ICAA; Diedrich et al., 2018). The study included 105 students and 57 younger working-age individuals (from 19 to 36 years of age). Three-way analyses of variance were carried out on the reaction time in the Simon task given the congruence of the previous and current trials and below/above average results on creative activities and achievements scales. The reaction time in the Simon task was on average shorter in congruent than in incongruent trials (the Simon effect), as well as in the trials preceded by congruent than in those preceded by incongruent trials. The Simon effect was only present in trials preceded by a congruent trial, while reaction times in the trials preceded by incongruent trials were shorter in incongruent than in congruent trials (the Gratton effect). However, neither the Simon nor the Gratton effect were more pronounced within more or less creative participants, but the participants with an above average result on the scale of creative activities reacted on average more slowly than individuals with below the average score. The correlations between the scores on the creativity measures and the different reaction times and indices of the Simon and Gratton effect were not significant. The expected effects related to the Simon task have been obtained in this study, but further research is needed to try to replicate the findings regarding the flexibility of inhibitory control measured by performance in the Simon task and creative behavior.

Effects of Habituation on Spatiotemporal Gait Measures in Younger Adults

Abstract Virtual reality (VR) has potential benefits for training and rehabilitation (Lei et al., 2019; Rutkowski et al., 2020). In some instances, understanding how performance in VR relates to performance in the real world is a necessary step in building effective environments. This study was designed to determine whether gait in VR changes over time (adaptation), and whether it approaches natural environment performance over time (habituation). Nineteen young adults walked over a gait mat in a real hallway for five minutes and a virtual hallway for three 10-minute blocks. Results indicated that gait was significantly different in the natural environment compared to the first five minutes of immersion (p < 0.05). Group averages also demonstrated that after 10–15 minutes of immersion, there was no statistical difference between the virtual and natural environments across any of the gait measures (p > 0.05). However, individual differences in gait behavior were also evident. While some participants matched performance between virtual and natural environments by the end of the 30-minute session, others did not. These findings provide evidence that individuals adapt differently to motor tasks in VR and suggest that when gait is required in VR, the environment may need to be tailored to the individual to achieve desired outcomes.