Individual Differences In Age Research Articles

How symptom distress mediates the relationship between individual differences and perceived controllability among women with gynecologic cancer.

This study aims to investigate the individual differences in perceived controllability among women with gynecologic cancer who are undergoing chemotherapy. We also examined the mediating effect of symptom distress on the relationship between individual differences and perceived controllability. This cross-sectional study employs purposive sampling; data were collected via self-reported questionnaires. In total, 170 women completed the survey. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the proposed hypotheses of the mediating effect of symptom distress. Results revealed that individual differences in age (r=-0.20, p<.05), education (t=-2.24, p<.05), employment (t=-2.05, p<.05), cancer stage (t=2.35, p<.05), and number of chemotherapy sessions in the past three months (r=-0.16, p<.05) were significantly associated with perceived treatment control. Physical, but not psychological, symptom distress fully mediated the relationship between individual differences and perceived controllability. Participants who perceived financial distress (β=0.179, p<.05) and those who had undergone a higher number of chemotherapy sessions within the past three months (β=0.216, p<.05) experienced greater physical symptom distress. Additionally, those who experienced greater physical symptom distress perceived lower personal control (β=-0.199, p<.05) and treatment control (β=-0.217, p<.05). Understanding the mediating effects of symptom distress on the relationship between individual differences and perceived controllability can enhance our knowledge of the mechanisms of illness acceptance, which significantly contributes to illness adaptation among women with gynecologic cancer.

The Association Between Accelerated Biological Aging and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Older Adults with Hypertension

BackgroundCurrent hypertension treatments rely on chronological age, which may not reflect individual differences in aging and its impact on cardiovascular health. This study aimed to determine whether biological age can predict adverse outcomes in older adults with hypertension, independent of traditional risk factors including chronological age. MethodsAn analysis of a prospective cohort was conducted using data from the Health and Retirement Study, a longitudinal survey of older adults in the United States. The Klemera-Doubal method was employed to calculate the biological age of the participants with hypertension at the time of enrollment in 2016. Discrete-time survival analysis was conducted to analyze the relationship between accelerated biological aging and the risk of mortality, heart disease, and stroke over four years of follow-up. ResultsA total of 4,442 individuals were analyzed. Of these, 2,438 showed decelerated aging, whereas 2,004 experienced accelerated aging (biological age > chronological age). The median age of the patients in both groups was around 70 years. Both groups had similar racial and ethnic distributions and predominantly consisted of non-Hispanic whites. The accelerated aging group had a higher prevalence of chronic diseases, lower education levels, and less wealth than the decelerated aging group. After adjustment for these differences, accelerated aging was associated with a higher risk of a composite outcome of death, heart disease, and stroke, with an adjusted hazard ratio (a-HR) of 1.62 (95% confidence interval: 1.27-2.06, p= 0.001). ConclusionsAccelerated biological age is a predictor of cardiovascular outcomes and death in patients with hypertension.

Impact of anterior cruciate ligament injury on functional capacity and pain: an analysis differentiated by age and gender

Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries significantly impact knee function, particularly in active populations. This study explores functional capacity and pain post-ACL reconstruction in relation to age, gender, and physical activity. A total of 41 participants who underwent ACL reconstruction were analyzed. Data were collected on age, sex, physical activity level, and pain frequency/intensity. The sample included 56.10% women (n=23) with an average age of 30.27 ± 10.18 years. Among the participants, 19.51% engaged in light activity, 26.83% in moderate, 7.32% in vigorous, 24.39% in very vigorous, and 21.95% were unable to perform any activity. Significant age differences were observed in moderate activity (p = 0.017), with older women more likely to engage in moderate activity. Logistic regression revealed age as a key factor affecting activity level (p &lt; 0.05), and sex had marginal significance (p ≈ 0.054), suggesting men may perform more intense activities. Pain frequency and intensity showed weak correlations with age (p &gt; 0.05), but women reported higher pain levels than men. The average functional ability dropped from 8.73 before the injury to 5.80 post-surgery. Men reported more pain than women, although t-tests showed no statistically significant differences between genders in functional capacity before or after surgery. ACL reconstruction reduces knee function across genders, with men reporting higher pain intensity. Age significantly impacts activity level, emphasizing the need for targeted rehabilitation strategies. Post-surgical recovery programs should consider individual differences in age and sex to optimize outcomes and enhance recovery.

성격 잠재계층에 따른 사회적 고립과 심리적 유연성의 차이

Objective: To investigate the psychosocial variables related to social isolation, which is emerging as a common social problem in early, middle, and late adulthood, and to identify how latent personality traits class is related to social isolation and psychological flexibility. Methods: One-way analysis of variance, correlation analysis, and latent profile analysis were conducted on 469 adults aged 20-69 using BFI-SF, ESLI, and K-AAQ-II. Results: First, in terms of age differences, social isolation was not statistically significant, and psychological flexibility was statistically significant, with old age being higher than other age groups. Second, each variable showed a mostly significant correlation. Social isolation showed a negative correlation with extroversion, conscientiousness, and agreeableness, and a positive correlation with neuroticism. Psychological flexibility showed a positive correlation with extroversion, openness, conscientiousness, and agreeableness, and a negative correlation with neuroticism. Social isolation and psychological flexibility showed a negative correlation. Third, the latent profiles of personality traits were classified into four types: “unstable energetic” (16%), “normal average” (58%), “adaptive flexible” (18%), and “passive avoidant” (8%). Fourth, the differences in social isolation and psychological flexibility according to the latent class of personality traits were found to be significant. In social isolation, the “passive avoidant” was the highest and “adaptive flexible” the lowest, while in psychological flexibility, the “adaptive flexible” was the highest and “passive avoidant” the lowest. Conclusions: This study predicted a relationship between social isolation and age and psychosocial variables. It broadens the comprehensive understanding of personality traits vulnerable to social isolation and personality traits with high psychological flexibility according to adult personality traits. Therefore, it has implications for counseling interventions and preventive approaches based on social isolation group considering individual differences in age, various personality traits, and psychological flexibility.

From intention to action: How environmental setback perception mediates green purchase behaviour

This research explores the interaction between perceptions of environmental degradation during the pandemic and their subsequent effect on eco-conscious purchasing activities. This study constructs a theoretical framework by combining insights from established behavioural and consumption value perspectives. We analyse responses from 390 participants and utilize structural equation modelling to validate our model. The main findings indicate that participants believed the environmental conditions deteriorated during the pandemic, a perception that mediated the link between intentions for green purchasing and actual purchasing actions. The study also examines the model results by the individual differences in age and gender. Furthermore, except for functional value price, most consumption values resulted statistically significant on attitudes towards green purchasing. These insights are pivotal, providing relevant implications for the fields of marketing, sustainability, and policymaking, elucidating novel determinants for consumer's eco-friendly purchasing intentions and behaviours in a post-pandemic scenario. Comprehending these novel determinants is crucial for establishing effective strategies to encourage sustainable consumption patterns and to mitigate potential setbacks in forthcoming crises.

Preschool Children’s Science Learning: Instructional Approaches and Individual Differences

ABSTRACT Research Findings: Early science skills predict later science achievement, and persistent achievement gaps in science appear as early as preschool. The current study compared the effectiveness of different instructional approaches for teaching preschoolers about sinking and floating and examined individual differences in learning. Typically developing 4–5-year-olds (N = 93; 47% female) were randomly assigned to an Explicit Instruction, Discovery Learning, or No-Instruction Control condition. A pre-posttest design was used to measure change in children’s knowledge of sinking and floating using an assessment created for the current study. Participants also completed measures of executive function and non-verbal and verbal IQ. Children in the Explicit Instruction condition learned more than children in the other two groups. Additionally, individual differences in age, socioeconomic status, IQ, and executive function predicted learning, although only age and SES were uniquely predictive when all variables were included in the model. Lastly, children’s sinking and floating pretest scores significantly interacted with instructional condition to predict learning. Among children in the Discovery Learning condition, those with more prior knowledge gained more after instruction than children with less prior knowledge. Practice or Policy: These findings highlight the importance of considering how learner characteristics might influence the effectiveness of different instructional approaches.

Project Soothe: A pilot study evaluating the mood effects of soothing images collected using a citizen science approach

Background Mentally-generated soothing imagery is a therapeutic technique to support mental wellbeing, but some individuals may require support using externally presented stimuli. Project Soothe was launched to collect soothing images using a citizen science approach. This online pilot study evaluated the first 575 soothing images collected, examining: 1) if the images were perceived to be soothing; 2) if viewing the images had a positive impact on mood; and 3) if mood effects were influenced by individual differences in age, gender and depressive symptoms. Methods We recruited 1152 participants (13 – 79 years, M = 35.62, SD = 14.60; 77% female). Participants were randomly allocated to one of 23 sets, each containing 25 images (n = 50 per set) and asked to rate their emotional response (soothed, excited, and anxious) to each image. Participants also reported their mood states pre- and post-viewing the images (using the International Positive and Negative Affect Schedule – Short Form). Results Project Soothe images were rated to be significantly more soothing than anxiety- or excitement-inducing. Further, viewing 25 images was significantly associated with an increase in positive affect and decrease in negative affect. These effects were associated with age and depressive symptoms, with older individuals and those with lower depressive symptoms being associated with more positive changes in mood. Conclusions This pilot study provides preliminary evidence that these soothing images can promote positive mood changes. Further work can now replicate these findings in larger-scale studies with comparison groups and extended outcome variables. The images and associated data have been made available in a data repository (OSF) as a free resource for researchers and practitioners. It is hoped that these images can be developed into useful therapeutic resources.

Is reproductive development adaptively calibrated to early experience? Evidence from a national sample of females.

Many developmental theories have not been sufficiently evaluated using designs that control for unobserved familial confounds. Our long-term goal is to determine the causal structure underlying associations between early environmental conditions and later psychosocial and health outcomes. Our overall objective in this study was to further evaluate predictions derived from applications of life history theory to female reproductive development, key among them that reproductive milestones translate early environmental risk into fertility, health, and behavioral outcomes. To this end, we used female data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 and structural equation modeling to conduct increasingly severe tests, beginning with covariate control and then progressing to sibling control and behavioral genetic designs. After adjusting for confounds varying between sets of siblings, we did not find evidence that age at menarche reflected components of early environment or that any focal outcomes reflected early fragmented family structure (birth to age nine). Although we detected no links between measured environment and individual differences in age at sexual debut, we did find that it reflected both shared and nonshared influences in our behavior genetic models. Interestingly, delayed sexual debut (into young adulthood) reflected identification of parents as the greatest influences and forecasted an array of fertility-related outcomes. Taken together, these findings challenge theories suggesting menarche timing is adaptively calibrated to early environment. They also highlight the need for more research using sibling control and related designs to examine the roles of environments in development. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Impact of brain parcellation on prediction performance in models of cognition and demographics.

Brain connectivity analysis begins with the selection of a parcellation scheme that will define brain regions as nodes of a network whose connections will be studied. Brain connectivity has already been used in predictive modelling of cognition, but it remains unclear if the resolution of the parcellation used can systematically impact the predictive model performance. In this work, structural, functional and combined connectivity were each defined with five different parcellation schemes. The resolution and modality of the parcellation schemes were varied. Each connectivity defined with each parcellation was used to predict individual differences in age, education, sex, executive function, self-regulation, language, encoding and sequence processing. It was found that low-resolution functional parcellation consistently performed above chance at producing generalisable models of both demographics and cognition. However, no single parcellation scheme showed a superior predictive performance across all cognitive domains and demographics. In addition, although parcellation schemes impacted the graph theory measures of each connectivity type (structural, functional and combined), these differences did not account for the out-of-sample predictive performance of the models. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that while high-resolution parcellations may be beneficial for modelling specific individual differences, partial voluming of signals produced by the higher resolution of the parcellation likely disrupts model generalisability.

Arithmetic skills are associated with left fronto-temporal gray matter volume in 536 children and adolescents

There are large individual differences in arithmetic skills. Although a number of brain-wide association studies have attempted to identify the neural correlates of these individual differences, studies have focused on relatively small sample sizes and have yielded inconsistent results. In the current voxel-based morphometry study, we merged six structural imaging datasets of children and adolescents (from 7.5 to 15 years) whose levels of arithmetic skills were assessed, leading to a combined sample of n = 536. Controlling for individual differences in age, gender, as well as language, and intelligence, we found a unique positive relation between arithmetic skill and gray matter volume in the left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and middle temporal gyrus (MTG). Our results suggest that individual differences in arithmetic skills are associated with structural differences in left fronto-temporal areas, rather than in regions of the parietal cortex and hippocampus that are often associated with arithmetic processing.

Physical Resilience as a Predictor of Lifespan and Late-Life Health in Genetically Heterogeneous Mice.

Dynamic measures of resilience-the ability to resist and recover from a challenge-may be informative of the rate of aging before overt manifestations such as chronic disease, disability, and frailty. From this perspective mid-life resilience may predict longevity and late-life health. To test this hypothesis, we developed simple, reproducible, clinically relevant challenges, and outcome measures of physical resilience that revealed differences between and within age groups of genetically heterogeneous mice, and then examined associations between mid-life resilience and both lifespan and late-life measures of physiological function. We demonstrate that time to recovery from isoflurane anesthesia and weight change following a regimen of chemotherapy significantly differed among young, middle-aged, and older mice, and were more variable in older mice. Females that recovered faster than the median time from anesthesia (more resilient) at 12 months of age lived 8% longer than their counterparts, while more resilient males in mid-life exhibited better cardiac (fractional shortening and left ventricular volumes) and metabolic (glucose tolerance) function at 24 months of age. Moreover, female mice with less than the median weight loss at Day 3 of the cisplatin challenge lived 8% longer than those that lost more weight. In contrast, females who had more weight loss between Days 15 and 20 were relatively protected against early death. These data suggest that measures of physical resilience in mid-life may provide information about individual differences in aging, lifespan, and key parameters of late-life health.

Relation ofresting brain signal variability to cognitive andsocioemotional measures inan adult lifespan sample.

Temporal variability of the fMRI-derived blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) signal during cognitive tasks shows important associations with individual differences in age and performance. Less is known about relations between spontaneous BOLD variability measured at rest and relatively stable cognitive measures, such as IQ or socioemotional function. Here, we examined associations among resting BOLD variability, cognitive/socioemotional scores from the NIH Toolbox and optimal time of day for alertness (chronotype) in a sample of 157 adults from 20 to 86 years of age. To investigate individual differences in these associations independently of age, we regressed age out from both behavioral and BOLD variability scores. We hypothesized that greater BOLD variability would be related to higher fluid cognition scores, more positive scores on socioemotional scales and a morningness chronotype. Consistent with this idea, we found positive correlations between resting BOLD variability, positive socioemotional scores (e.g. self-efficacy) and morning chronotype, as well as negative correlations between variability and negative emotional scores (e.g. loneliness). Unexpectedly, we found negative correlations between BOLD variability and fluid cognition. These results suggest that greater resting brain signal variability facilitates optimal socioemotional function and characterizes those with morning-type circadian rhythms, but individuals with greater fluid cognition may be more likely to show less temporal variability in spontaneous measures of BOLD activity.

Testing Environmental Effects on Age at Menarche and Sexual Debut within a Genetically Informative Twin Design.

Life-history-derived models of female sexual development propose menarche timing as a key regulatory mechanism driving subsequent sexual behavior. The current research utilized a twin subsample of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health; n = 514) to evaluate environmental effects on timings of menarche and sexual debut, as well as address potential confounding of these effects within a genetically informative design. Results show mixed support for each life history model and provide little evidence rearing environment is important in the etiology of individual differences in age at menarche. This research calls into question the underlying assumptions of life-history-derived models of sexual development and highlights the need for more behavior genetic research in this area.

Project Soothe: A pilot study evaluating the mood effects of soothing images collected using a citizen science approach

Background: Mentally-generated soothing imagery is a therapeutic technique to support mental wellbeing, but some individuals may require support using externally presented stimuli. Project Soothe was launched to collect soothing images using a citizen science approach. This online pilot study evaluated the first 575 soothing images collected, examining: 1) if the images were perceived to be soothing; 2) if viewing the images had a positive impact on mood; and 3) if mood effects were influenced by individual differences in age, gender and depressive symptoms. Methods: We recruited 1152 participants (13 – 79 years, M = 35.62, SD = 14.60; 77% female). Participants were randomly allocated to one of 23 sets, each containing 25 images (n = 50 per set) and asked to rate their emotional response (soothed, excited, and anxious) to each image. Participants also reported their mood states pre- and post-viewing the images (using the International Positive and Negative Affect Schedule – Short Form). Results: Project Soothe images were rated to be significantly more soothing than anxiety- or excitement-inducing. Further, viewing 25 images was significantly associated with an increase in positive affect and decrease in negative affect. These effects were associated with age and depressive symptoms, with older individuals and those with lower depressive symptoms being associated with more positive changes in mood. Conclusions: This pilot study provides preliminary evidence that these soothing images can promote positive mood changes. Further work can now replicate these findings in larger-scale studies with comparison groups and extended outcome variables. The images and associated data have been made available in a data repository (OSF) as a free resource for researchers and practitioners. It is hoped that these images can be developed into useful therapeutic resources.

Salivary immune markers are not associated with self-reported childhood maltreatment or psychopathology in adults

BackgroundPsychological stress has repeatedly been found to be associated with pro-inflammatory markers in blood, and neuro-inflammation may play a role in the development of psychopathology after early life stress. Salivary immune testing is a novel method to non-invasively assess immune functioning. We examined a large range of salivary immune markers in relation to self-reported childhood maltreatment and psychopathology in an adult sample. MethodsParticipants (N = 118, 51% female, mean age = 46.6 yrs, range 22–64) were drawn from a cross-sectional three-generation study, and supplied 2 ml of saliva via passive drool. They reported on childhood maltreatment experiences and on psychopathological symptoms in the last 6 months. Hair cortisol was additionally assessed in a subsample (n = 68). Levels of IL1ß, IL6, IL8, IFNγ, TNFα, tIgE, sIgA, FLCƛ, and FLCƙ were assessed. ResultsLinear mixed model analyses showed that several salivary immune markers were associated with age (sIgA and IgE), BMI (sIgA, IL1ß, and IL6), sex (FLCs and IgE), and bad health (IL6, IL8, TNFα). No associations with (anti-inflammatory) medication use or oral health problems were found. Notably, no associations between the immune markers and self-reported childhood maltreatment, psychopathology, or hair cortisol were found. ConclusionsSalivary immune measures were found to be sensitive to individual differences in age, sex, health and BMI. However. in the current sample there was no indication of inflammation in relation to chronic psychological stress. Larger studies, including participants with higher stress levels, are needed to further examine associations between salivary immune markers and psychological stress.

Age- and Episodic Memory-related Differences in Task-based Functional Connectivity in Women and Men.

Aging is associated with episodic memory decline and changes in functional brain connectivity. Understanding whether and how biological sex influences age- and memory performance-related functional connectivity has important theoretical implications for the cognitive neuroscience of memory and aging. Here, we scanned 161 healthy adults between 19 and 76 years of age in an event-related fMRI study of face-location spatial context memory. Adults were scanned while performing easy and difficult versions of the task at both encoding and retrieval. We used multivariate whole-brain partial least squares connectivity to test the hypothesis that there are sex differences in age- and episodic memory performance-related functional connectivity. We examined how individual differences in age and retrieval accuracy correlated with task-related connectivity. We then repeated this analysis after disaggregating the data by self-reported sex. We found that increased encoding and retrieval-related connectivity within the dorsal attention network (DAN), and between DAN and frontoparietal network and visual networks, were positively correlated to retrieval accuracy and negatively correlated with age in both sexes. We also observed sex differences in age- and performance-related functional connectivity: (a) Greater between-networks integration was apparent at both levels of task difficulty in women only, and (b) increased DAN-default mode network connectivity with age was observed in men and was correlated with poorer memory performance. Therefore, the neural correlates of age-related episodic memory decline differ in women and men and have important theoretical and clinical implications for the cognitive neuroscience of memory, aging, and dementia prevention.

Exploring reported distress before and pain during needle insertion into a venous access port in children with cancer.

Venous access port is commonly used during cancer treatment in children, yet little is known about how children experience such needle insertion procedures. To study distress before and pain after venous access port needle insertion among children and adolescents with cancer. A second aim was to explore associations between their self-report of procedure-related distress and pain with proxy reports by parents and nurses. The sample included 43 children/adolescents, aged 1-16years with cancer, treated at two Norwegian university hospitals. The patient, parent(s), and the nurse performing the procedure completed developmentally appropriate 11-point distress and pain scales before and immediately after the venous access port procedure. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and non-parametric correlations. The ethical code of conduct was followed and conformed to the ethical guidelines adopted by the Regional Committee for Medicine and Health Research and the data protector officer at the hospitals. For the youngest children (1-5years), the median distress proxy score was 8 (range 0-9) and pain proxy score 4 (range 0-10). Median distress and pain scores for children aged 6-12years were 3 (range 0-9) and 1 (range 0-10), respectively, and for the adolescents (age 13-16) 0 (range 0-6) and 1 (range 0-5), respectively. Patients' self-reported distress and pain correlated highly with parents' (distress: rho=0.83, p<0.001, pain: rho=0.92, p<0.001) and with nurses' proxy ratings (distress: rho=0.89, p<0.001, pain: rho=0.88, p<0.001). There were individual age differences in experienced distress/pain associated with venous access port needle insertion, with a trend for younger children to experience higher levels of distress/ pain than the older children. Children's self-report of distress/ pain concurred with both parental and nurse proxy reports.

Age and socioeconomic differences in coping with home stressors: A daily diary study of mindfulness and anticipatory coping

Anticipatory coping involves efforts to reduce the consequences of upcoming, future stressors, but the individual and contextual predictors of anticipatory coping are not well understood. The current study focuses on individual differences in age and income and contextual fluctuations in mindfulness (present-centered thinking) to predict daily fluctuations in anticipatory coping with future home-related stressors. In the Mindfulness and Anticipatory Coping Everyday study, 223 adults (116 aged 60–90, 107 aged 18–36) completed an online questionnaire for nine consecutive days via Qualtrics, providing demographic information on Day 1. For the subsequent 8 days, participants reported mindfulness and anticipatory coping. Multilevel models revealed that within-person increases in daily mindfulness were related to decreases in daily anticipatory coping among younger adults and higher income older adults. This research provides evidence of tension between mindfulness and future-oriented coping and shows how this depends on one's life stage and access to resources.

Individual differences in mental imagery in different modalities and levels of intentionality

Mental imagery is a highly common component of everyday cognitive functioning. While substantial progress is being made in clarifying this fundamental human function, much is still unclear or unknown. A more comprehensive account of mental imagery aspects would be gained by examining individual differences in age, sex, and background experience in an activity and their association with imagery in different modalities and intentionality levels. The current online study combined multiple imagery self-report measures in a sample (n = 279) with a substantial age range (18–65 years), aiming to identify whether age, sex, or background experience in sports, music, or video games were associated with aspects of imagery in the visual, auditory, or motor stimulus modality and voluntary or involuntary intentionality level. The findings show weak positive associations between age and increased vividness of voluntary auditory imagery and decreased involuntary musical imagery frequency, weak associations between being female and more vivid visual imagery, and relations of greater music and video game experience with higher involuntary musical imagery frequency. Moreover, all imagery stimulus modalities were associated with each other, for both intentionality levels, except involuntary musical imagery frequency, which was only related to higher voluntary auditory imagery vividness. These results replicate previous research but also contribute new insights, showing that individual differences in age, sex, and background experience are associated with various aspects of imagery such as modality, intentionality, vividness, and frequency. The study’s findings can inform the growing domain of applications of mental imagery to clinical and pedagogical settings.

Age and gender in language, emoji, and emoticon usage in instant messages

Text is one of the most prevalent types of digital data that people create as they go about their lives. Digital footprints of people's language usage in social media posts were found to allow for inferences of their age and gender. However, the even more prevalent and potentially more sensitive text from instant messaging services has remained largely uninvestigated. We analyze language variations in instant messages with regard to individual differences in age and gender by replicating and extending the methods used in prior research on social media posts. Using a dataset of 309,229 WhatsApp messages from 226 volunteers, we identify unique age- and gender-linked language variations. We use cross-validated machine learning algorithms to predict volunteers' age (MAEMd = 3.95, rMd = 0.81, R2Md = 0.49) and gender (AccuracyMd = 85.7%, F1Md = 0.67, AUCMd = .82) significantly above baseline-levels and identify the most predictive language features. We discuss implications for psycholinguistic theory, present opportunities for application in author profiling, and suggest methodological approaches for making predictions from small text data sets. Given the recent trend towards the dominant use of private messaging and increasingly weaker user data protection, we highlight rising threats to individual privacy rights in instant messaging.