Individual Athletes Research Articles

The role of physiological testing for athlete development in sport: The elite athlete perspective

One common practice in talent development environments during the investment years (age 16+) and elite sport, in general, is the use of physiological testing of the athletes’ physical determinants of performance. In this article, the regime of controlling and monitoring athletes’ bodies for elite sport production through physiological testing will be examined. To this end, we explored athletes’ experiences of what has been done and why physiological tests are carried out the way they are to understand the practice of physiological testing in relation to athlete development. The material in this study is based on interviews with adult elite sport athletes (four group interviews with eight individual athletes in three different sports, four male and four female, and individual interviews with twelve female and five male football players). Schatzki's and Reckwitz's theorizing on social practices, together with Dewey's theorizing on learning from experience, are used to explore and illuminate the practice of physiological testing and what learning is enabled and constrained within that practice. The findings show that the meaning and significance of physiological testing for athletic development relates to how the tests are followed up and talked through with the athletes. The analysis shows that there exists a form of sport-wide commonality where the same understandings, rules or ends—irrespective of which sport is concerned—govern coaches’ and athletes’ behavior regarding physiological tests. The physiological testing practice articulates action intelligibility through rules and structures which emphasizes tests as isolated quantified indicators of physical status. The use of physiological tests as a part of learning or as a means for athlete development can therefore be questioned.

Exploring social skills in sports: a comparative analysis between individual and team athletes among students

Social skills are essential for individuals, enabling positive engagement with their environment, numerous studies have underscored the contribution of sports in cultivating such skills. This study aims to explore level of social skills and explore differences among individual and team athletes. The Alwan Scale (2011), comprising four dimensions, was validated for its psychometric properties and then administered to a random sample of 143 student athletes at the Institute of Sports Science and Physical Activity Technologies (STAPS) during the academic year 2022-2023. Among the participants, 68 were engaged in individual sports, and 75 participated in team sports, with an average age range of (20-28). Data analysis was conducted using SPSS version. The results indicated a high level of social skills and their dimensions, with no significant differences between individual and team sports and the Point-Biserial correlation test indicate that there is no significant relationship between the type of sport and students. Keywords: social skills, individual sports, team sports, athletes, students.

Most elite athletes return to preinjury competitive activity after surgical treatment for medial malleolus stress fractures.

To provide return-to-performanceoutcomes after surgical treatment for medial malleolus stress fractures in the elite athlete. Additionally, to describe an individualised surgical approach in the management of medial malleolus stress fractures. Five athletes (six ankles) underwent surgical treatment for a medial malleolus stress fracture. The surgical technique was based on the extent of the fracture line in steps with first arthroscopic debridement of bony spurs, microfracturing of the fracture line and screw fixation. Return-to-performance data includedtime to return to sport-specific training, normal training, first competitive activity, performanceand the return-to-performance rate. Patients returned to sport-specific training at a median of 10 weeks. They started normal training at 16 weeks postoperativelyand returned to their first competitive activity after 19 weeks. All patients had bony spurs on the distal tibia which were arthroscopically debrided. One patient received arthroscopic debridement of bony spurs alone. Four patients received additional microfracturing of the fracture line and three patients received screw fixation. All patients achieved clinical and radiographic union on follow-up computed tomography scan at 3 months postsurgery. At latest follow-up, no refractures nor hardware complications, nor any other complications were observed. Arthroscopic debridement of bony spurs, debridement and microfracturing of the fracture lineand screw fixation are all viable surgical tools in the management of medial malleolus stress fractures in elite athletes. The surgical approach containing these options should be tailored to the individual athlete based on the fracture line in the sagittal plane. While most athletes return to full competitive activity in 3-4 months, time to self-reported return to full performance is often much longer. Level IV.

USE OF POST-EXERCISE RECOVERY STRATEGIES IN TEAM AND INDIVIDUAL SPORTS

INTRODUCTION The study aims to identify perceptions of recovery and actual post-exercise recovery utilized by team and individual athletes in Far North Queensland. METHODS The recovery techniques used by team and individual sport athletes of different competition levels was investigated by survey. Specifically, this study investigated if, when, why and how the following recovery strategies were used: active land-based recovery (ALB), active water-based recovery (AWB), stretching (STR), cold water immersion (CWI) and contrast water therapy (CWT). RESULTS Seventy-eight athletes (47 male: 31 female) mean age 25.59 ±8.48 yrs completed survey. Local competition was most represented (44%), followed by state (37%), regional (13%), national (5%) and international (1%). Rugby league/ruby union were the most represented team sport (42%), followed by soccer (16%), AFL (6%), netball (6%) and remaining team sports (8%). Individual sports (24%) included swimming, running, and ultra-marathon. A total of 84% of participants self-reported performing a recovery strategy following either competition, after pre-season training or after in-season training. Most popular recovery methods, stretch (28%), ice bath (26%), massage (14%) and sleep (10%). Stretching was the most effective recovery strategy, with 38% ‘always’ performing stretching after a game, 36% during pre-season training and 40% in season training. Self-report by athletes was suggestive of the more physiological being the most important, stating that the strategies helped speed up recovery, increase blood flow, decrease inflammation, swelling and soreness. CONCLUSION To date the survey data suggests athletes reporting why they believe recovery strategies are effective/ineffective are more aware of the physiological recovery aspects, and less so on psychological aspects. This suggests potential targeted education on psychological aspects of recovery and recovery related to heat and humidity aspects to assist in developing best practice guidelines and education for athletes and coaches.

Statistical Tests for Sports Science Practitioners: Identifying Performance Gains in Individual Athletes.

Harry, JR, Hurwitz, J, Agnew, C, and Bishop, C. Statistical tests for sports science practitioners: identifying performance gains in individual athletes. J Strength Cond Res 38(5): e264-e272, 2024-There is an ongoing surge of sports science professionals within sports organizations. However, when seeking to determine training-related adaptations, sports scientists have demonstrated continued reliance on group-style statistical analyses that are held to critical assumptions not achievable in smaller-sample team settings. There is justification that these team settings are better suited for replicated single-subject analyses, but there is a dearth of literature to guide sports science professionals seeking methods appropriate for their teams. In this report, we summarize 4 methods' ability to detect performance adaptations at the replicated single-subject level and provide our assessment for the ideal methods. These methods included the model statistic, smallest worthwhile change, coefficient of variation (CV), and standard error of measurement (SEM), which were discussed alongside step-by-step guides for how to conduct each test. To contextualize the methods' use in practice, real countermovement vertical jump (CMJ) test data were used from 4 (2 females and 2 males) athletes who complete 5 biweekly CMJ test sessions. Each athlete was competing in basketball at the NCAA Division 1 level. We concluded that the combined application of the model statistic and CV methods should be preferred when seeking to objectively detect meaningful training adaptations in individual athletes. This combined approach ensures that the differences between the tests are (a) not random and (b) reflect a worthwhile change. Ultimately, the use of simple and effective methods that are not restricted by group-based statistical assumptions can aid practitioners when conducting performance tests to determine athlete adaptations.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SUBJECTIVE TRAINING QUALITY SCALE FOR TEAM SPORTS SCALE

INTRODUCTION & AIMS In team sports, training is strategically designed to incorporate all training factors (i.e., physical, technical, tactical, mental) to improve an athlete’s performance during competition. The ultimate goal is for individual athletes to work together as a cohesive unit to complete training objectives and train at high quality. Although anecdotal, training quality is considered a key component in the training process. However, there is currently no team sport literature that has defined this construct. Nor a validated measurement instrument available to assess the quality of team sport training. Therefore, the present study developed the Subjective Training Quality for Team Sports (STQ-TS) scale. Furthermore, this study investigated the application of this scale within the context of a professional National Rugby League (NRL) team. METHODS Eleven rugby league players (24 ± 2 y; 62 ± 47 NRL games) were interviewed to explore how they define and assess training quality. Thematic analysis was used to analyse interview transcripts. The identified themes were used to develop a preliminary STQ-TS scale. The STQ-TS scale was completed by forty-two NRL players across two seasons. RESULTS Four themes were identified for the STQ-TS scale. These themes included physical, technical, mental, and teamwork (i.e., communication; connectedness). Players perceived pre-season training to be lower quality compared to in-season. In-season training quality showed a gradual improvement throughout both seasons, reaching its peak late in the season. CONCLUSION Professional rugby league players perceive training quality as their ability to complete physical, technical, mental, and teamwork objectives. The STQ-TS scale serves as a valuable tool for practitioners to assess training quality in team sports. The integration of the STQ-TS scale with external load, internal load, and athlete response measures can provide practitioners with a more nuanced and holistic understanding of the training process.

Enhancing sports education through big data analytics: Leveraging models for improved teaching strategies

The incorporation of big data analytics into the realm of sports education marks a pioneering shift towards leveraging advanced technological tools to refine teaching methodologies and elevate student performance to unprecedented levels. This article delves into the application of data-driven models that meticulously analyze a multitude of facets within sports education, ranging from student engagement and skill acquisition to comprehensive performance assessments. Utilizing sophisticated quantitative analysis techniques alongside robust mathematical models, this research meticulously evaluates the impact of embedding big data analytics into the core practices of sports education. The essence of this investigation lies in its rigorous analysis of how data-driven insights can be harnessed to inform and enhance coaching strategies, tailor training programs to individual athlete needs, and objectively evaluate performance metrics. By systematically analyzing large datasets that encompass performance statistics, physiological data, and even psychological assessments, educators and coaches can gain a deeper understanding of each student-athlete's unique profile, thereby facilitating more personalized and effective training interventions. The findings from this study highlight the transformative potential of big data analytics in sports education, illustrating how such technological integration can lead to more scientifically informed teaching strategies, optimized training regimens, and significantly improved outcomes for student-athletes. This research not only underscores the benefits of adopting a data-centric approach in sports education but also sets the stage for future innovations that could further revolutionize the field, making it more data-informed, precise, and tailored to the needs and potential of each individual athlete. Through this exploration, it becomes evident that the future of sports education and training lies in the effective integration of big data analytics, promising a new era of enhanced performance and educational excellence.

Design and Adjustment of Optimizing Athletes' Training Programs Using Machine Learning Algorithms

The adjustment of optimizing athletes' training programs using machine learning involves leveraging data-driven approaches to enhance training regimens and performance outcomes for athletes. By analyzing various factors such as athletes' physiological data, training logs, performance metrics, and external conditions, machine learning algorithms can identify patterns, correlations, and optimal training strategies. These insights enable coaches and sports scientists to tailor training programs more effectively to individual athletes' needs, goals, and abilities. By continuously adapting and refining training plans based on real-time feedback and data analysis, machine learning helps optimize athletes' preparation, recovery, and overall performance, ultimately maximizing their potential and success in competitive sports. This paper explores novel methodologies and machine-learning techniques aimed at optimizing athletes' training programs. With the increasing demand for peak performance and injury prevention in sports, there is a growing need for data-driven approaches to tailor training regimens effectively. One such methodology, the Optimized Adjustment Evolutionary Computing Feature Selection (OA-EC-FS), is investigated for its ability to select relevant features crucial for enhancing athletes' performance across various sports disciplines. Additionally, machine learning algorithms are employed to classify athletes' training programs based on selected features, enabling coaches and trainers to make informed decisions to maximize performance outcomes.

Injury Risk Prediction and Prevention Algorithm for Athletes Based on Data Mining

The injury risk prediction and prevention algorithm for athletes employs data mining techniques to analyze various factors contributing to athlete injuries, such as training load, biomechanics, previous injuries, and environmental conditions. By collecting and analyzing vast amounts of data from wearable devices, training logs, and medical records, the algorithm identifies patterns and trends associated with injury occurrence. Using machine learning models, it predicts the likelihood of an athlete sustaining an injury based on these patterns. Additionally, the algorithm provides personalized injury prevention strategies tailored to each athlete's risk profile, including adjusting training regimens, modifying technique, and recommending recovery protocols. Injury prevention is a critical aspect of athlete safety and performance optimization in sports. This paper proposed a novel PMin-Max injury risk prediction and prevention algorithm designed to provide comprehensive assessments of injury risks for athletes. The algorithm leverages data mining techniques to compute both best-case and worst-case probabilities of injury, enabling practitioners to understand the range of potential outcomes and associated uncertainties. By computing minimum and maximum probabilities of injury for individual athletes and generating risk scores, the algorithm facilitates tailored preventive measures based on the severity of predicted injury risks. Through simulation experiments and analysis of simulated results, we demonstrate the algorithm's effectiveness in identifying athletes with elevated injury risks and highlighting situations where injury risks are relatively low.

Design of Training Load Monitoring and Adjustment Algorithm for Athletes: Based on Heart Rate Variability and Body Index Data

The training load monitoring and adjustment algorithm for athletes, based on heart rate variability (HRV) and body index data, offers a comprehensive approach to optimizing athletic performance and minimizing the risk of injury. By leveraging HRV data, which reflects the autonomic nervous system's response to training stress, and body index measurements such as body mass index (BMI) or body fat percentage, the algorithm provides insights into athletes' physiological readiness and recovery status. The design of an effective training load monitoring and adjustment algorithm is critical for optimizing athletic performance while minimizing the risk of injury and overtraining. This paper proposes a novel approach that integrates heart rate variability (HRV) and body index data to tailor training programs to individual athlete needs. This paper presents an innovative approach to training load monitoring and adjustment for athletes, utilizing heart rate variability (HRV) and body index data. Through continuous monitoring and analysis of HRV metrics such as RMSSD and LF/HF Ratio, in conjunction with body mass index (BMI) and body fat percentage, personalized load management strategies are developed to optimize athletic performance while mitigating the risk of injury and overtraining. The optimization algorithm outlined in this study allows for real-time adjustments to training loads based on individual physiological responses, ensuring that athletes receive tailored training programs that maximize performance gains and promote long-term health and well-being. By leveraging HRV and body index data, coaches and sports scientists can enhance athletic performance outcomes and support the overall development and longevity of athletes' careers.

Construction of Sports Music Integration Training and Performance Practice System Based on Virtual Reality Technology

The development of a virtual reality-based system that incorporates audio into physical routines presents an innovative approach to games performance and training practice. By leveraging virtual reality technology, athletes are immersed in simulated environments where they can engage in synchronized movements with musical accompaniment, enhancing their overall performance and training experience. The system provides customizable training sessions tailored to individual athlete needs, allowing for real-time feedback and performance analysis. Through the integration of music, athletes are able to synchronize their movements with rhythmic cues, fostering better coordination, timing, and rhythm in their athletic routines. The virtual reality environment offers a highly immersive experience, replicating real-world training scenarios and allowing athletes to visualize and practice their routines in a dynamic and interactive setting. Additionally, the system incorporates performance metrics and analytics to track progress over time, enabling athletes to monitor their development and make adjustments to their training regimen as needed. Ultimately, by utilizing virtual reality technology and music synchronization, the development of this sports music integration training and performance practice system represents a cutting-edge method of athletic training. By providing athletes with a highly immersive and customizable training experience, this system has the potential to enhance athletic performance, improve training outcomes, and revolutionize the way athletes train and prepare for competition.

Longitudinal Internal Training Load and Exposure in a High-Performance Basketball Academy.

Lever, JR, Duffield, R, Murray, A, Bartlett, JD, and Fullagar, HHK. Longitudinal internal training load and exposure in a high-performance basketball academy. J Strength Cond Res 38(8): 1464-1471, 2024-This study describes the longitudinal training exposure (session counts) and internal training load (Rating of Perceived Exertion [RPE] and Session Rating of Perceived Exertion [sRPE]) of youth basketball players at a high-performance academy, based on the training year, training term, and playing position. Historical internal training load and training exposure data were collated from 45 male high-performance youth basketball athletes between 2015 and 2019. Data included session duration, RPE, sRPE, training type, and date. Linear mixed models and pairwise comparisons were performed on the weekly means and categorized by training year (year 1, year 2, year 3), term (term 1, term 2, term 3, term 4), and playing position (Backcourt, Frontcourt). Linear mixed models indicate that the individual athlete had the greatest influence on variance in training load and exposure. Significant differences were observed for increased session count, duration, and sRPE ( p < 0.001) in year 2 compared with year 1. These measures also increased within each year whereby term 3 and term 4 ( p < 0.001) were significantly greater than term 1 and term 2. No significant differences were observed between playing position ( p > 0.05). Training exposure and internal training load increase in year 2 from year 1 for high-performance youth basketball academy athletes. Differences between training load and exposure for terms (i.e., training blocks) suggest the phase of season influences training prescription, while playing position has limited effect.

Unlocking the Science of Physical Endurance: Training Techniques and Biological Factors

This study examines the many elements influencing endurance performance in university students, including training routines, psychological fortitude, hereditary tendencies, and environmental adjustments. Data was gathered from 38 university students engaged in endurance sports using a descriptive methodology. The results reveal a significant commitment to endurance training since individuals typically participate in four sessions each week, each lasting around 60 minutes. Psychological resilience plays a significant role, with 82% of participants showing strong levels of intrinsic motivation and 74% displaying mental toughness in overcoming obstacles. 37% of participants have a family history of endurance performance, while 29% are interested in genetic testing, showing differing views on hereditary effects on performance. Performance outcomes are greatly impacted by environmental conditions, such as altitude training (42%), and heat acclimatisation (63%), which are often used tactics. The physiological examinations show an average VO2 max of 50 ml/kg/min, along with a muscle fibre composition consisting of 55% slow-twitch fibres and 45% fast-twitch fibres. The results highlight the intricate nature of elements influencing endurance performance in university students, emphasising the need for customised support systems. Universities can enhance performance outcomes and foster comprehensive athlete development by considering physiological, psychological, genetic, and environmental factors. This study enhances comprehension of the complex aspects of endurance performance in university students, offering valuable insights for improving athletic training and support programmes. Coaching recommendations should customise training programmes based on individual athlete requirements, utilising strong intrinsic motivation and mental resilience to create a favourable training atmosphere and enhance performance results. Keywords: Endurance Performance, University Students, Psychological Resilience.

How Does the Implementation of a Customized Training Program Tailored to the Individual Athlete’s Abilities and Goals Impact the Performance and Confidence of a Cross-Country Team Over a Season?

This action research study investigates the effects of implementing a customized training program tailored to the individual athlete's abilities and goals on the performance and confidence of a high school cross-country team over a season. The research is guided by the question: How does the implementation of such a program influence the collective performance and confidence of the team members? The study is situated within a high school cross-country team with varying experience levels and academic demands. The training program aims to align with each athlete's unique attributes and objectives through a meticulous design while fostering a culture of dedication and excellence. The study seeks to contribute to understanding how individualized training regimens can optimize athlete performance, prevent injuries, enhance motivation, and promote overall team cohesion. The findings of this research hold implications for sports science, coaching methodologies, and educational practices aimed at maximizing athletic potential and fostering a positive team environment.

How do psychological and physiological performance determinants interact within individual athletes? An analytical network approach

ABSTRACT Previous research on sports performance has mostly been conducted: (a) at a single point, or at most, a few points in time, (b) at the group level, and (c) as a causal chain of monodisciplinary predictor and outcome variables. In the present research, we argue and demonstrate that the next important step should be to monitor, analyze, and visualise the dynamic and individual-specific interactions of multidisciplinary determinants of sports performance. Hence, we apply a recently developed analytical approach, that is, (Time-Varying) Vector-AutoRegressive ((TV)-VAR) modelling, which captures the intra-individual interactions and changes of multidisciplinary determinants. We first measured critical psychological (e.g., self-efficacy) and physiological (e.g., heart rate) factors among youth male football (soccer) players at a professional club, on a daily basis across one season. Next, we assessed the temporal dynamics of the factors with (TV-)VAR models and visualised the findings in network graphs. We present the results of two show-cases that demonstrate how multidisciplinary key determinants of sports performance can dynamically evolve across a sports season, that is, interact and change in individual-specific ways over time. Specifically, the results of Player 1 revealed a stable network across the season in which self-efficacy was the strongest predictor of other determinants, whereas this was not the case for Player 2. These new insights improve our understanding of how key determinants of sports performance are dynamically related within individual athletes and may allow practitioners to develop and implement person-specific, targeted, and timely interventions.

Effects of Hormonal Contraception and the Menstrual Cycle on Fatigability and Recovery From an Anaerobic Exercise Test.

Cabre, HE, Ladan, AN, Moore, SR, Joniak, KE, Blue, MNM, Pietrosimone, BG, Hackney, AC, and Smith-Ryan, AE. Effects of hormonal contraception and the menstrual cycle on fatigability and recovery from an anaerobic exercise test. J Strength Cond Res 38(7): 1256-1265, 2024-This study sought to evaluate the effects of oral contraceptive (OC) and hormonal intrauterine device (H-IUD) use, compared with a eumenorrheic (EUM) cycle, on fatigability and recovery between hormone the phases. Peak power (PP), average power (AP), fatigue index (FI), blood lactate, vessel diameter, and blood flow (BF) were measured from a repeated sprint cycle test (10 × 6 seconds) in 60, healthy, active women (mean ± SD ; age: 26.5 ± 7.0 years, BMI: 22.5 ± 3.7 kg·m -2 ) who used monophasic OC (≥6 months; n = 21), had a H-IUD (≥6 months; n = 20), or had regular naturally occurring menstrual cycle (≥3 months) or had a nonhormonal IUD (EUM; n = 19). Subjects were randomly assigned to begin in either the low-hormone phase (LHP) or high-hormone phase (HHP) and were tested once in each phase. Separate univariate analyses of covariances assessed the change from HHP to LHP between the groups, covaried for progesterone, with significance set at p ≤ 0.05. All groups demonstrated similar changes in PP, AP, FI, blood lactate, vessel diameter, and BF between the phases ( p > 0.05). Although not significant, AP was higher in LHP for OC (Δ -248.2 ± 1,301.4 W) and EUM (Δ -19.5 ± 977.7 W) and higher in HHP for H-IUD (Δ 369.3 ± 1,123.0 W). Oral contraceptive group exhibited a higher FI (Δ 2.0%) and reduced blood lactate clearance (Δ 2.5%) in HHP. In recreationally active women, hormonal contraception and hormone phases may minimally impact fatigue and recovery. Individual elite female athletes may benefit from understanding hormonal contraception type as performance and recovery may slightly vary across the cycle.

Team Cohesion in Records/Martial Arts Sport Athletes: Transformational Leadership and the Role of Narcissism

This study aimed to determine the relationship between narcissism and team cohesion of transformational leadership and individual sports athletes interactions. In particular, individual sports can present a model to verify the level of perception of team cohesion according to the type of record sports and martial arts sports. Transformational leadership, narcissism, and team cohesion were measured among 225 college athletes. SPSS 24.0, Amos 24.0, PROCESS Macro programs (Model No. 5) were used for data analysis. The analysis includes frequency analysis, Cronbach’s alpha values, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), Pearson’s correlation, and moderating effect. Transformational leadership significantly positively affected team cohesion and narcissism. Non-narcissism also significantly positively affected team cohesion. The interaction between transformational leadership and individual athletes was significantly higher for martial arts sports. Team cohesion was also important for athletes in individual sports, thus expanding the boundaries of transformational leadership theory. To cultivate a sports team (organization), strategic sports management will be necessary to enhance team cohesion.

Decision support for sports selection based on performance measurement applying the generalized Thurstone method

In this article, a new complex method is presented that supports decision-making in sports selection. The method consists of two different parts. The first one is the creation of the framework, that is the assessment of the opinions of trainers about the significance of some attributes in special sports. As a result, weights are constructed based on a generalized 7-option Thurstone method. The second part of the process involves assessing athletes’ performance from various perspectives. Finally, the calculated weights are combined with the performance of the athletes. The scores we obtain quantifiably indicate which sport is most likely to be recommended for a given individual. Moreover, the method developed allows us to quantifiably measure the strength of individual athletes and compare them across age groups equally. A computer program has been developed that implements the evaluation process in addition to this the evaluation results are also presented in this article. By extending this method, it can not only be used for sports selection but also for making various complex decisions where there are numerous possible outcomes to choose from. As a result of this research, we present a generalized set of criteria for the evaluation and describe the results obtained with the method. We explain the relationship between coaching decisions and the recommendations of the method and provide a method for determining the direction of future development for individual athletes.

Sensory function and somatosensorial system changes according to visual acuity and throwing techniques in goalball players: A cross-sectional study.

The somatosensory system is a complect sensory system that differentiates individual athletes. The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of visual acuity level on throwing technique, proprioceptive sense of the shoulder joint, light touch and two-point discrimination sense of the upper extremity, and sensory function (postural control and reaction time) in visually impaired goalball players. Goalball players who have different visual acuities B1(unable to perceive light or recognize its shape); B2 (has a visual field of less than 5 degrees and can recognize shapes); B3 (visual field greater than 5 degrees and less than 20 degrees) participated in the study. The sensorial system was evaluated with proprioceptive sense of the shoulder joint and sensory tests (light touch and two-point discrimination sense of the dominant hand.). Sensory function (postural control and reaction time) was evaluated with the flamingo balance test, functional reach test, and pro-agility test. The goalball players' throwing technique was questioned. Seventeen male players, those aged 20-30 (20.8±3.9 years) who have been professionally engaged in goalball for at least three years (58.7-37.8 months) participated. Shoulder internal rotation joint position sense and the flamingo balance test were found to be different in the group with B1 visual acuity than in the group with B3 visual acuity (p = 0.042* and 0.028 respectively). There was no difference between groups with B1-B2 visual acuity (p = 0.394 and p = 0.065) and between groups with B2-B3 visual acuity (p = 0.792 and p = 0.931). There was no difference in the groups in terms of sensory tests and reaction time (p> 0.05). In goalball, joint position sense is related to throwing techniques. Although there is a general acceptance that other sensory systems should work harder to compensate for the sense of vision, fear of falling, athlete's branch year, sports year, muscle strength, and general physical condition of the athlete may affect the measurements made, especially in the dynamic position.

Testing in Intermittent Sports-Importance for Training and Performance Optimization in Adult Athletes.

Performance in intermittent sports relies on the interplay between multiple physiological systems determining the capacity to perform short explosive efforts as well as repeated intense actions with limited recovery over the course of an entire game. Testing should reflect these demands to allow for sport- and position-specific capacity analyses that eventually may translate into optimized training and improved performance. This may include individual load management and optimized training prescription, intensity targeting for specific positions or individual athletes, as well as benchmarking for monitoring of training progression and enhanced engagement of athletes. This review provides an overview of available tests in different exercise domains identified as relevant (from assessment of single explosive actions to intermittent endurance capacity), forming the basis for recommendations on how to compose a comprehensive yet feasible test battery that may be integrated into the seasonal competition and training plan. The test procedures should cover the performance spectrum of relevance for the individual athlete-also in team sports to account for positional differences. We emphasize the benefits of sport-specific tests, highlight parameters of importance for test standardization, and discuss how the applied test battery may be supplemented with secondary tests directed toward specific energy systems to allow for more in-depth analyses when required (e.g., in terms of an underperforming athlete). The synergy between testing and tracking of match performance (utilizing time-motion or global positioning systems) is highlighted, and although tracking cannot substitute for testing, combining the tools may provide a comprehensive overview of the physiological demands and performance during competition contextualized to the athletes' maximal exercise capacity.