Indium Tin Oxide Particles Research Articles

Interface Reactive Sputtering of Transparent Electrode for High-Performance Monolithic and Stacked Perovskite Tandem Solar Cells.

Sputtered indium tin oxide (ITO) fulfills the requirements of top transparent electrodes (TTEs) in semitransparent perovskite solar cells (PSCs) and stacked tandem solar cells (TSCs), as well as of the recombination layers in monolithic TSCs. However, the high-energy ITO particles will cause damage to the devices. Herein, the interface reactive sputtering strategy is proposed to construct cost-effective TTEs with high transmittance and excellent carrier transporting ability. Polyethylenimine (PEI) is chosen as the interface reactant that can react with sputtered ITO nanoparticles,so that, coordination compounds can be formed during the deposition process, facilitating the carrier transport at the interface of C60/PEI/ITO. Besides, the impact force of energetic ITO particles is greatly alleviated, and the intactness of the underlying C60 layer and perovskite layer is guaranteed. Thus, the prepared semitransparent subcells achieve a significantly enhanced power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 19.17%, surpassing those based on C60/ITO (11.64%). Moreover, the PEI-based devices demonstrate excellent storage stability, which maintains 98% of their original PCEs after 2000 h. On the strength of the interface reactive sputtering ITO electrode, a stacked all-perovskite TSC with a PCE of 26.89% and a monolithic perovskite-organic TSC with a PCE of 24.33% are successfully fabricated.

Numerical investigation on the densification of granulated porous indium tin oxide powders before compaction

Dense and uniform initial packing structures of powders are of key significance in powder metallurgy process, which can provide the precondition for the fabrication of high-performance components with low cost and high efficiency. In this paper, the packing densification of indium tin oxide (ITO) granulated micro powders with continuous size distributions and internal porosity under three-dimensional vibrations was numerically investigated by discrete element method (DEM). Firstly, the DEM model was validated by physical experiments, and the contact parameters between particles and the porosity therein were determined. Then the effects of operating parameters on the macro/micro properties (e.g., packing density, coordination number (CN), pores, and forces) of the packing structures were analyzed. Results show that the mean CN cannot intuitively reflect the packing structure due to the complex and varied inter-particle contacts caused by the inhomogeneity of the particle size in a multi-sized granular system. Additionally, the excellent packing structure of porous ITO particles is always obtained from low amplitude when the vibration intensity is the same. Corresponding mechanism analyses reveal that higher amplitude normally causes strong convective diffusion, leading to more pores in the packing. This increases the probability of wedging effect occurring during settling, thereby reducing the packing density. However, optimal packing quality with low amplitude can only be achieved when coupled with high frequency. Therefore, applying vibration is an effective way to achieve dense packing of porous spherical particles, especially at low amplitude and high-frequency operating conditions.

Transparent Recombination Electrode with Dual-Functional Transport and Protective Layer for Efficient and Stable Monolithic Perovskite/Organic Tandem Solar Cells.

Rational selection and design of recombination electrodes (RCEs) are crucial to enhancing the power conversion efficiency (PCE) and stability of monolithic tandem solar cells (TSCs). Sputtered indium tin oxide (ITO) with high conductivity and excellent transmittance is introduced as RCE in perovskite/organic TSCs. To prevent high-energy ITO particles destroy the underlying material during sputtering, dual-functional transport and protective layer (C1) is employed. The styryl group in C1 can be thermally crosslinked to serve as a sputtering protective layer. Meanwhile, the conjugated phenanthroline skeleton in C1 shows high electron mobility and hole blocking capability to promote the electron transport process at the interfaces and effectively reduce charge accumulation. Monolithic perovskite/organic TSC with high PCE of 24.07% and excellent stability is demonstrated by stacking a 1.77eV bandgap perovskite layer and a 1.35eV bandgap organic active layer. This strategy provides new insights for overcoming the fundamental efficiency limits of single-junction devices and promotes the further development of TSC devices.

Photothermal insulation mechanism of submicron ITO hollow particles in PVDF film

In this study, submicron Sn[Formula: see text]-doped In2O3 hollow particles (indium-tin oxide (ITO)) with a lyrium shell-like surface were synthesized via solvothermal method. The appropriate addition of these particles into polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) films exhibits high visible light transmission and effective UV/IR blocking properties, surpassing those of ITO nanoparticles. This can be attributed to the reduced absorption of UV/IR radiation by the hollow ITO particles, as well as their higher diffuse reflectivity and thermal insulation.

Silica aerogel composited with both plasmonic nanoparticles and opacifiers for high-efficiency photo-thermal harvest

Plasmonic nanoparticles are doped in silica aerogels for high-efficiency photothermal conversion of solar energy in seawater desalination and so on. However, this suffers from remarkable heat loss problem via near-infrared radiation. The present work proposes a novel aerogel composited with both plasmonic nanoparticles and opacifiers. The radiative characteristics of the aerogel composite were numerically investigated by coupling the T-matrix method and Monte Carlo method. The opacifiers promote the extinction characteristics in the infrared wavelength range and reduce the radiative thermal conductivity, while the plasmonic nanoparticles enhance the absorption efficiency in the solar spectrum. Moreover, silica aerogels doped with both silver nanoparticles and indium tin oxide (ITO) particles were prepared and tested. It is found that the optimal radius and volume fraction of ITO particles are 1000 nm and 1% at 300 K, respectively, based on the silica aerogel (particle radius of 5 nm and porosity of 95%) doped with silver plasmonic nanoparticles (particle radius of 10 nm and concentration of 5%). They can achieve an absorption efficiency of 87.65% in the solar spectrum and a low transmittance in the infrared range with reduced heat loss. The present work paves a new way to design full-spectrum absorption aerogels for high-efficiency photothermal conversion.

Effect of ITO Content on Properties of Functional Graphene Coating on Cotton Fabric

In order to investigate the effect of indium tin oxide (ITO) on the performance of graphene functional coating on cotton fabric, different contents of ITO were added to the graphene coating system, and the effects of ITO content and curing time on various properties of graphene coating were studied. The results showed that the ITO particles adsorbed on the graphene sheets and filled the gaps between the graphene sheets, forming a dense conductive network, which could further improve the conductive performance of the functional coatings. When ITO content was 1.2%, the resistivity of the coating reached the lowest 1.8 Ω·cm, and the overall ultraviolet transmittance and reflectance were the lowest. With the increase of ITO content, the infrared reflectance will first decrease and then slowly increase, but the infrared reflectance is all below 0.5%. When the curing time reached 90 s, the resistivity and UV transmittance of cotton fabric coating decreased. With the extension of curing time, the coating on infrared reflectivity gradually increased, but the infrared reflectivity of the overall < 1%.

Toxicokinetics and systematic responses of differently sized indium tin oxide (ITO) particles in mice via oropharyngeal aspiration exposure

Indium tin oxide (ITO) is an important semiconductor material, because of increasing commercial products consumption and potentially exposed workers worldwide. So, urgently we need to assess and manage potential health risks of ITO. Although the Occupational Exposure Limit (OEL) has been established for ITO exposure, there is still a lack of distinguishing the risks of exposure to particles of different sizes. Therefore, obtaining toxicological data of small-sized particles will help to improve its risk assessment data. Important questions raised in quantitative risk assessments for ITO particles are whether biodistribution of ITO particles is affected by particle size and to what extent systematic adverse responses is subsequently initiated. In order to determine whether this toxicological paradigm for size is relevant in ITO toxic effect, we performed comparative studies on the toxicokinetics and sub-acute toxicity test of ITO in mice. The results indicate both sized-ITO resided in the lung tissue and slowly excreted from the mice, and the smaller size of ITO being cleared more slowly. Only a little ITO was transferred to other organs, especially with higher blood flow. Two type of ITO which deposit in the lung mainly impacts respiratory system and may injure liver or kidney. After sub-acute exposure to ITO, inflammation featured by neutrophils infiltration and fibrosis with both dose and size effects have been observed. Our findings revealed toxicokinetics and dose-dependent pulmonary toxicity in mice via oropharyngeal aspiration exposure, also replenish in vivo risk assessment of ITO. Collectively, these data indicate that under the current OEL, there are potential toxic effects after exposure to the ITO particles. The observed size-dependent biodistribution patterns and toxic effect might be important for approaching the hazard potential of small-sized ITO in an occupational environment.

WITHDRAWN: Enhancing the QOS of far field networking and communication using the optical properties of graphene

The Optical fibers with data links are the backbone of optical communications in the internet world. Generally, Indium tin oxide (ITO) contains high optical conducting material which has good electrical conductivity property. This property plays a vibrant role in the photo-detecting material to increase the speed in optical communication. The absorption of ITO is not much considerable under certain wavelengths. The unique properties of graphene such as gapless, a direct, and tunable band-gap make the various light detection. Nowadays, surveillance in industrial cyber-physical systems needs to enhance optical communication between networking. In this work, we coated graphene with ITO using spin and dip coating techniques that increase the light absorption result in increasing optical communication at high data rate. The main goal of the proposed work is to investigate the optical properties of coated graphene with ITO to improve communication in the defense field. The fabricated graphene with ITO particle composite properties are analyzed using an X-Ray Diffractometer (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy in terms of light absorption, electrical conductivity, and transmittance. The experimental results significantly improve the optical properties in order to increase the high data rate in optical and network devices. Light absorption and transmittance are carried out to evaluate the optical properties of the graphene with ITO. The experimental result clearly shows that the Graphene with ITO based optical communication enhances the improvement in Quality of Service (QoS) parameters.

High dielectric constant UV curable polyurethane acrylate/indium tin oxide composites for capacitive sensing

Taking into consideration environmental issues and additive manufacturing technologies, the development of advanced UV curable polymers and polymer composites is an area of increasing interest. In this scope, polyurethane acrylate (PUA) composites with Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) were produced in order to tune morphology, optical, thermal, mechanical and dielectric properties. It is shown that ITO particles are well dispersed within the polymer matrix and that the polymerization rate and the UV curing conversion degree are influenced by the ITO content. Moreover, the optical transparency has decrease to 20% for the samples containing 10 wt% ITO content and the elastic modulus increases 10% for same sample. On the other hand, the glass transition temperature of PUA is independent of the ITO amount. ITO/PUA composites with 25 wt% ITO filler content presents high dielectric constant of 33. This composite has been used for developing a capacitive sensor, showing the suitability of the UV curable materials for capacitive sensing applications.

Nonlinear optical re-orientation and photoacoustic properties of indium tin oxide nanoparticles

Abstract The nonlinear optical Kerr effect of indium tin oxide (ITO) nanoparticles (NPs) was investigated using continuous wave laser beams. ITO NPs were synthesized using the sol-gel method and were prepared as a colloid and a thin film. The structural and optical properties of the synthesized particles were characterized by X-ray diffraction analysis, transmission electron microscopy and UV–visible spectroscopy. The energy band gap was found to be 3.45 eV. The nonlinear optical properties of these NPs were measured by two sources: one He–Ne laser beam and a diode laser beam at wavelengths of 632.8 nm and 450 nm, respectively. For the He–Ne laser beam, the obtained nonlinear refractive index was found to be n 2 = + 1.7 × 10 − 7 c m 2 W , which its plus sign indicates that the main nonlinear refractive phenomenon involved was the optical re-orientation effect due to the electric dipole moment of the particles. The high nonlinear absorption of the particles at both wavelengths leads to the creation of intensity-dependent photoacoustic (PA) signals that are mainly in the audible range of sound frequencies. The sonic waves were within a frequency interval of 2–19 KHz. The ITO particles were present as NPs, which simultaneously show optical re-orientation and PA responses under continue wave (CW) laser irradiations. This research thus finds that ITO NPs are a good candidate for electro-optical sensors and applications.

Fourier Transformed Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy for analysis of cholesteryl acrylate liquid crystall-indium tin oxide composites

The aim of this research is to synthesis composites and polymerizations of cholesteryl acrylate with dopan of Indium Tin Oxide (ITO). Composite of cholesteryl acrylate-ITO was made by using casting solution technique at 75°C for 30 minutes. Monomer cholesteryl acrylate and ITO have succeeded in becoming a composite with blending process in variations concentrations of ITO. The photopolymerization process by UV curing method with variation of UV lamp power that is 10, 25, 40 and 55 watt. Analysis of functional group with FTIR showed vibration of In-OH bond with C-O at wave number 1056,99 cm−1. Other peak in wave number 2929,87 cm−1 for vibration of groups in bond C-H in vinyl, wave number at 2860,01 cm−1 for vibration bond of C-H alyfatic. Spectrum FTIR of ITO showed at wave numbers: 437,84; 487,99; 534,28; 619,15 cm−1. Therefore, after photopolymerizations process, peak at 2100 cm−1 has disappeared in spectrum FTIR of Cholesteryl acrylate which showed molecule of cholesteryl acrylate had polymerized. Conductivity of composite of cholesteryl acrylate-ITO was determined using by LCR meter. In general conductivity value and permittivity of composite of cholesteryl acrylate-ITO increase with the increasing of the concentration of dopan ITO was added to the composites. SEM images of composite of cholesteryl acrylate-ITO show that pores of cholesteryl acrylate had been filled by ITO particles. The SEM-EDX data show that the content of the elements contained in the composite cholesteryl acrylate-ITO are: C 76.91%, O 3.13% and In 5.13%. The value conductivity (σ) of composite of cholesteryl acrylate-ITO is 4.078 x 10−10S/m, therefore polymer of cholesteryl acrylate-ITO of σ is 11.2 x 10−10S/m.

Combination of the Monte Carlo method and DDA to evaluate the radiative properties of ITO- pigmented and TiO2-pigmented coatings

Indium tin oxide (ITO) and titanium dioxide (TiO2) are both widely used as pigments for thermal barrier coatings. Instead of being assumed to be the overall spherical particles, the ITO and TiO2 pigment particles in the coatings were modeled as clusters with connected structures to simulate the morphology of the fractal aggregates that are shown in the transmission electron microscope (TEM) images. The ball-necking factor η was applied to quantify the connectors by utilizing the particle superposition model. A approach, which combined the Monte Carlo method and discrete dipole approximation (DDA), was applied to evaluate the reflective and absorptive performances of the functional coatings that were pigmented with the ITO and TiO2 fractal clusters. This approach considered the effects of the pigments with fractal aggregate structures on the scattering properties, including the phase functions and asymmetry factor. These parameters reflected the dependence of the scattering intensity on scattering angles and the radiative transfer directions of the beams in the coatings and had a subsequent influence on the coatings’ absorptivity. Based on the Monte Carlo-DDA method, the impacts of the cluster material, ambient media, coating thicknesses and volume fraction of the pigment clusters on the coatings absorption rates were discussed.

Electroreduction of indium tin oxide in a CaF2–NaF–CaO molten salt at the solid oxide membrane anode system

The electroreduction of indium tin oxide (ITO) using a solid oxide membrane anode was investigated in a molten salt of CaF2–NaF–CaO at 1150 °C under an inert atmosphere. In the CaF2–NaF blank salt, the first reduction peak did not change from −0.25 V (vs. W pseudo reference electrode (R. E.)) for the addition of up to 2 wt% CaO, but the second reduction peak was observed at −0.55 V (vs. W pseudo R. E.) in 1 wt% CaO, and −0.4 V (vs. W pseudo R. E.) in 2 wt% CaO. Cyclic voltammetry analysis was carried out using ITO as the cathode, and a reduction peak was observed at +0.31 V (vs. W pseudo R. E.). This is a positive value about 0.24 V greater than the theoretical value, probably arising because of the increase in the oxygen ion activity of CaO. The optimum ITO particle size was determined to be 600–1000 μm considering the maximum reduction efficiency dependent on the sedimentation rate, specific melt droplet growth, and reduced InSn film formation. The formation of an InSn alloy with almost the same mass ratio as the initial ITO was confirmed by combining the results of X-ray diffraction and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis.

Fabrication of monodisperse ITO submicro-spheres using l-Histidine-assisted one-step solvothermal method

Abstract Indium tin oxide (ITO), a representative transparent conducting oxide (TCO), is widely applied in photoelectric devices. In this work, monodisperse ITO submicro-spheres have been prepared using one-step solvothermal method at 250 °C. l -Histidine (L-His), triethylamine (TEA) and dimethylformamide (DMF) were used as shape controller, base agent and solvent, respectively. Significantly, the effect from process variables on the size and shape of submicro-spheres was studied systematically. L-His was used to promote the formation of spherical morphologies. When reaction time was prolonged from 12 to 24 h, nano-size particles eventually grew into submicron particles. After adding L-His, the size of ITO particles became smaller and the crystal tended to sphere-shape from cubic-shape. Meaningfully, the effect from particle size and morphology plays a key role in the resistivity of resultant powders. Compared with the resistivity of larger particles with mixed morphology prepared without L-His, the one of well-crystallized sphere-shaped small particles prepared with L-His was lower. The range of resistivity was between 0.4 and 0.7 Ω cm when 0.05 M L-His was added. Moreover, uniform spheres with a diameter of 0.29 μm have been obtained by one-step solvothermal method with 1 M TEA and 0.05 M L-His, which have potential application in photonic band gap crystals.

Eco-Friendly Electroreduction of Indium Tin Oxide Using SOM Anode in Molten Salts

Indium Tin Oxide(ITO) has been widely used at transparent electrode of Light Emitting Diode(LED) or the material of Liquid Crystal Display(LCD). However, waste ITO is generated after process and wet recycling technology has been used. In the case of wet recycling technology, a large amount of acid required and process time is so long. Then, if waste ITO could be recycled by dry process, electroreduction process, it is expected to solve the economic and environmental problems. However, when graphite is used as anode, it generates greenhouse gases such as CO or CO2 gas and causes formation of dirty C dusts. In this study, electroreduction of Indium Tin Oxide using Solid Oxide Membrane anode was investigated in a molten salt of CaF2-NaF-CaO at 1150 °C under the inert atmosphere to replacing previous anode materials. The SOM process is a direct electrolytic reduction process using a solid-oxide oxygen ion conducting membrane, namely, yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ), with high-temperature molten salts as a reaction medium. To verify the possibility of replacing, waste ITO was used because of the large use in industry. Electrochemical behavior was investigated by CV(Cyclic Voltammetry) in molten salts using waste ITO and inert working electrodes. As a result, InSn metal was reduced by SOM process. After electroreduction process, the optimum ITO particle size is considered to be the range of 600 μm to 1000 μm due to considering the maximum reduction efficiency dependent on the sedimentation rate, specific melt droplet growth, and reduced InSn film formation. The reduced InSn alloy was analyzed by XRD and EDS and they were confirmed as InSn alloy, which is almost the same as the initial ITO composition.

New interplay between interstitial and alveolar macrophages explains pulmonary alveolar proteinosis (PAP) induced by indium tin oxide particles

Occupational exposure to indium tin oxide (ITO) particles has been associated with the development of severe lung diseases, including pulmonary alveolar proteinosis (PAP). The mechanisms of this lung toxicity remain unknown. Here, we reveal the respective roles of resident alveolar (Siglec-Fhigh AM) and recruited interstitial (Siglec-Flow IM) macrophages contributing in concert to the development of PAP. In mice treated with ITO particles, PAP is specifically associated with IL-1α (not GM-CSF) deficiency and Siglec-Fhigh AM (not Siglec-Flow IM) depletion. Mechanistically, ITO particles are preferentially phagocytosed and dissolved to soluble In3+ by Siglec-Flow IM. In contrast, Siglec-Fhigh AM weakly phagocytose or dissolve ITO particles, but are sensitive to released In3+ through the expression of the transferrin receptor-1 (TfR1). Blocking pulmonary Siglec-Flow IM recruitment in CCR2-deficient mice reduces ITO particle dissolution, In3+ release, Siglec-Fhigh AM depletion, and PAP formation. Restoration of IL-1-related Siglec-Fhigh AM also prevented ITO-induced PAP. We identified a new mechanism of secondary PAP development according to which metal ions released from inhaled particles by phagocytic IM disturb IL-1α-dependent AM self-maintenance and, in turn, alveolar clearance.

Comparison of hot pressing and spark plasma sintering in the densification behavior of indium tin oxide‐borosilicate glass composites

AbstractThe goal of this study was to fabricate borosilicate glass matrix composites with high optical transmittance and high conductivity by forming percolated segregated networks of indium tin oxide (ITO) in the microstructure. ITO nanoparticles and borosilicate glass microspheres were mechanically mixed with ITO concentrations varying from 0 to 2.99 vol%. The mixes were then consolidated using either hot pressing (HP) or spark plasma sintering (SPS). The effects of changing sintering methods, along with varying other processing parameters such as heating rate, maximum temperature, and applied pressure, had surprising and unanticipated effects. Ac impedance spectroscopy (IS), SEM, and EDS results indicated the successful formation of a grain‐like microstructure of the sintered glass using both HP and SPS processing, with the ITO particles segregated to the boundary regions in all samples. IS results indicated percolation threshold values between 0.154 and 0.307 vol% ITO in the HP samples and between 0.307 and 0.764 vol% ITO in the SPS samples, with resistivities as low as 29 (Ω·cm) at 2.99 vol% ITO. Optical properties were dominated by impurities and light scattering at defects such as pores. Contrary to conventional belief, it was found that samples made using SPS required far higher temperatures to fully densify, with all other processing conditions being the same, compared with HP. This behavior was confirmed through repeat tests using different SPS equipment and a wide range of processing conditions.

Micromechanical characterization of laser consolidated nanoparticle ITO layers

Indium tin oxide (ITO) is one of the few materials that combine optical transparency in the visible light spectrum with high electrical conductivity. These properties provide functionality in many optoelectronic applications but their application to certain fields is limited by the need to achieve advanced mechanical properties, hence requiring micromechanical characterization methods. In this paper, ITO coatings of 94–325nm thickness are produced from spin-coating of nanoparticle ink followed by consolidation by nanosecond UV laser irradiation in ambient air. These ITO layers are investigated by nanoindentation and scratch testing, which provide measurements of their hardness, Young's modulus and scratch resistance. This allows understanding the effect of the process parameters on the mechanical properties of the layers. It is concluded that a laser fluence of 59mJ/cm2 provides an effective mechanical consolidation of ITO particles up to 150nm thickness.

Toward High Conductivity of Electrospun Indium Tin Oxide Nanofibers with Fiber Morphology Dependent Surface Coverage: Postannealing and Polymer Ratio Effects.

High electrical conductivity of metal oxide thin films needs uniform surface coverage, which has been the issue for the thin films based on electrospun nanofibers (NFs) that have advantage over the sputtered/spin-coated films with respect to large surface area and mechanical flexibility. Herein, we investigated a reduction in the sheet resistance of electrospun indium tin oxide (ITO) NF films with improved surface coverage. We found that the surface coverage depends significantly on the electrospinnable polymer concentration in the precursor solutions, especially after post-hot-plate annealing following the infrared radiation furnace treatment. The postannealing process increases crystallinity and oxygen vacancies. However, with a higher PVP content, it makes the surface of ITO NFs more prominently rough as a result of the formation of larger sphere-shaped ITO particles on the NF surface, which gives rise to poor surface coverage. A less poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP) content in ITO NF films by electrospinning for short deposition times was found to improve surface coverage even after postannealing. The sheet resistance notably decreases, down to as low as 350 Ω/sq, with a high transmittance of over 90%. Our study provides an understanding on how to achieve high electrical conductivity of ITO NF films with high surface coverage, which can be utilized for the optoelectronic and sensing applications.

Comparison of the toxicity of sintered and unsintered indium-tin oxide particles in murine macrophage and epidermal cells

Indium-tin oxide (ITO) is used to produce flat panel displays and several other technology products. Composed of 90% indium oxide (In2O3) and 10% tin oxide (SnO2) by weight, ITO is synthesized under conditions of high heat via a process known as sintering. Indium lung disease, a recently recognized occupational illness, is characterized by pulmonary alveolar proteinosis, fibrosis, and emphysema. Murine macrophage (RAW 264.7) and epidermal (JB6) cells stably transfected with AP-1 to study tumor promoting potential, were used to differentiate between the toxicological profiles of sintered ITO (SITO) and unsintered mixture (UITO). We hypothesized that sintering would play a key role in free radical generation and cytotoxicity. Exposure of cells to both UITO and SITO caused a time and dose dependent decrease of the viability of cells. Intracellular ROS generation was inversely related to the dose of both UITO and SITO, a direct reflection of the decreased number of viable RAW 264.7 and JB6/AP-1 cells observed at higher concentrations. Electron spin resonance showed significantly increased hydroxyl radical (OH) generation in cells exposed to UITO compared to SITO. This is different from LDH release, which showed that SITO caused significantly increased damage to the cell membrane compared to UITO. Lastly, the JB6/AP-1 cell line did not show activation of the AP-1 pathway. Our results highlight both the differences in the mechanisms of cytotoxicity and the consistent adverse effects associated with UITO and SITO exposure.