Indium Antimonide Detector Research Articles

Enhancing point cloud data fusion through 2D thermal infrared camera and 2D lidar scanning

Sensor data fusion from multiple sources plays a pivotal role in advancing our understanding of real-world phenomena. This paper focuses on the integration of a thermal imager and a lidar to simultaneously capture four-dimensional (XYZT) space coordinates and temperatures. The fusion of data relies on establishing correspondence between overlapping lines in the lidar’s 3D point cloud and the infrared (IR) camera’s 2D thermal map. The presented combination method offers several key advantages. Firstly, it simplifies the calibration process. Furthermore, it can achieve near real-time performance, enabling prompt data analysis. Moreover, the method demonstrates high accuracy in capturing spatial information and temperature measurements. The thermal IR camera used in the experiment features a 1280 × 1024 pixel cooled indium antimonide (InSb) detector, operating in the short wavelength infrared (MWIR) spectral range of 1.5 to 5.5 µm. It provides temperature readings with ± 1 K accuracy and sub-30 mK resolution. On the other hand, the lidar system delivers centimeter-level precision within a range of approximately 1 to 12 m, even in well-lit outdoor environments. The experimental results validate the effectiveness of our combined system, successfully generating high-quality four-dimensional (4D) point clouds. The integration of the thermal IR camera and profilometer presents an intriguing tool with significant potential in various industrial applications. For instance, it can be employed to accurately assess gas leaks, enhance metallurgical processes, and improve safety on construction sites.

Characterization and potential for reducing optical resonances in Fourier transform infrared spectrometers of the Network for the Detection of Atmospheric Composition Change (NDACC)

Abstract. Although optical components in Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometers are preferably wedged, in practice, infrared spectra typically suffer from the effects of optical resonances (“channeling”) affecting the retrieval of weakly absorbing gases. This study investigates the level of channeling of each FTIR spectrometer within the Network for the Detection of Atmospheric Composition Change (NDACC). Dedicated spectra were recorded by more than 20 NDACC FTIR spectrometers using a laboratory mid-infrared source and two detectors. In the indium antimonide (InSb) detector domain (1900–5000 cm−1), we found that the amplitude of the most pronounced channeling frequency amounts to 0.1 ‰ to 2.0 ‰ of the spectral background level, with a mean of (0.68±0.48) ‰ and a median of 0.60 ‰. In the mercury cadmium telluride (HgCdTe) detector domain (700–1300 cm−1), we find even stronger effects, with the largest amplitude ranging from 0.3 ‰ to 21 ‰ with a mean of (2.45±4.50) ‰ and a median of 1.2 ‰. For both detectors, the leading channeling frequencies are 0.9 and 0.11 or 0.23 cm−1 in most spectrometers. The observed spectral frequencies of 0.11 and 0.23 cm−1 correspond to the optical thickness of the beam splitter substrate. The 0.9 cm−1 channeling is caused by the air gap in between the beam splitter and compensator plate. Since the air gap is a significant source of channeling and the corresponding amplitude differs strongly between spectrometers, we propose new beam splitters with the wedge of the air gap increased to at least 0.8∘. We tested the insertion of spacers in a beam splitter's air gap to demonstrate that increasing the wedge of the air gap decreases the 0.9 cm−1 channeling amplitude significantly. A wedge of the air gap of 0.8∘ reduces the channeling amplitude by about 50 %, while a wedge of about 2∘ removes the 0.9 cm−1 channeling completely. This study shows the potential for reducing channeling in the FTIR spectrometers operated by the NDACC, thereby increasing the quality of recorded spectra across the network.

Ground-based Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) O<sub>3</sub> retrievals from the 3040 cm<sup>−1</sup> spectral range at Xianghe, China

Abstract. In this study, we present O3 retrievals from ground-based Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) solar absorption measurements between June 2018 and December 2019 at Xianghe, China (39.75∘ N, 116.96∘ E). The FTIR spectrometer at Xianghe is operated with indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs) and indium antimonide (InSb) detectors, recording the spectra between 1800 and 11 000 cm−1. As the harmonized FTIR O3 retrieval strategy (Vigouroux et al., 2015) within the Network for the Detection of Atmospheric Composition Change (NDACC) uses the 1000 cm−1 spectral range, we apply the O3 retrieval in the 3040 cm−1 spectral range at Xianghe. The retrieved O3 profile is mainly sensitive to the vertical range between 10 and 40 km, and the degrees of freedom for signal is 2.4±0.3 (1σ), indicating that there are two individual pieces of information in partial columns between the surface and 20 km and between 20 and 40 km. According to the optimal estimation method, the systematic and random uncertainties of the FTIR O3 total columns are about 13.6 % and 1.4 %, respectively. The random uncertainty is consistent with the observed daily standard deviation of the FTIR retrievals. To validate the FTIR O3 total and partial columns, we apply the same O3 retrieval strategy at Maïdo, Réunion (a.k.a. Reunion Island; 21.08∘ N, 55.38∘ E). The FTIR O3 (3040 cm−1) measurements at Xianghe and Maïdo are then compared with the nearby ozonesondes at Beijing (39.81∘ N, 116.47∘ E) and at Gillot (20.89∘ S, 55.53∘ E), respectively, as well as with co-located TROPOspheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) satellite measurements at both sites. In addition at Maïdo, we compare the FTIR O3 (3040 cm−1) retrievals with the standard NDACC FTIR O3 measurements using the 1000 cm−1 spectral range. It was found that the total columns retrieved from the FTIR O3 3040 cm−1 measurements are underestimated by 5.5 %–9.0 %, which is mainly due to the systematic uncertainty in the partial column between 20 and 40 km (about −10.4 %). The systematic uncertainty in the partial column between surface and 20 km is relatively small (within 2.4 %). By comparison with other measurements, it was found that the FTIR O3 (3040 cm−1) retrievals capture the seasonal and synoptic variations of the O3 total and two partial columns very well. Therefore, the ongoing FTIR measurements at Xianghe can provide useful information on the O3 variations and (in the future) long-term trends.

Characterization of mid-wavelength quantum infrared cameras using the photon transfer technique

Noise plays a fundamental role in connection with theoretical limits in the field of inverse thermal problems, since the solution accuracy for such inverse problems is decisively influenced by noise-induced errors in temperature measurements. There are eight standard assumptions proposed by Beck and Arnold (1977), Beck (1979), Beck et al. (1985) and Özisik and Orlande (1999) for the statistical description of measurement errors (noise) which should be fulfilled in order to adequately solve an inverse heat conduction problem. Therefore, it is of utmost importance for thermography measurements that the real infrared camera properties (and especially the noise performance) are well characterized and their influence on the measurement results is known and considered. Within the scope of this work three different mid-wavelength infrared cameras (based on indium antimonide and cadmium mercury telluride detectors) from various manufacturers were characterized with respect to the above mentioned prerequisites by means of the so called photon transfer technique. One of the results show that the tested IR quantum detectors are mostly photon-noise limited and therefore subject to a pronounced Poisson noise characteristic, i.e. the noise signal level (signal variance) depends on the signal intensity. This in turn violates one of the basic prerequisites of most inverse heat conduction approaches, which are relying on an additive noise model with constant variance. In addition, the camera gain constants for two camera models were determined using the photon transfer technique. They are 433 photons/DN or 281 photons/DN and are a measure of the sensitivity of the camera, i.e. the number of incident photons that result in a measurable signal change in the thermographic image.

Numerical analysis of temperature and stress fields in hybrid indium antimonide arrays detector with laser irradiation

Thermal-stress effects are the major cause of failure in infrared focal-plane arrays detector, during laser irradiation. Based on the established three-dimensional structural model of hybrid indium antimonide infrared focal-plane arrays, the temperature and stress fields of hybrid indium antimonide detectors irradiated by 1.064-μm Gauss pulsed laser are studied, considering the temperature-dependent material parameters. The results indicate that the temperature increase and thermal stress effects are different, in each layer. Especially in indium antimonide chip, which is the uppermost layer of the indium antimonide detector that directly absorbs laser energy, the temperature shows not a smooth decrease as laser intensity from centre to outside, but a concentric-ringed ripple decrease with discontinuous high temperature extremum areas; which induces its own unique stress distributions: during the laser irradiation region, the thermal stress in areas above indium bumps is much lower than that in areas above underfill, but the stress distribution outside the laser irradiation region is exactly the opposite. The temperature and stress distribution in other materials are also different from that in indium antimonide chip. The main reason is that each material has different thermal properties, especially indium bump and underfill, which are alternative distribution in middle layers, have quite different thermal parameters. All these make the temperature and stress distribution in each layer having own characteristics. In addition, the change trend of the maximum temperature and stress in each layer in accordance with the laser pulse number are also studied. The maximum stress as well as temperature always occurs in the indium antimonide chip.

An FTIR method for accurate CO2 mole fraction measurements with correction for differences in isotopic composition of gases

The precision of optically based techniques for long term CO2 monitoring in the atmosphere is approaching the ±0.02 µmol mol−1 level, however biases of potentially up to fifteen times greater than this can arise due to differences in isotopic composition of sample and calibration gases used. We have developed and describe a Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) method for CO2 mole fraction measurements, using an instrument configured with a liquid N2-cooled mid-infrared indium antimonide (InSb) detector and a 10.01 m multipass Whitetype gas cell (0.75 l) and fitting of the 12C16O2 isotopologue absorption in the wavenumber region (3500–3800) cm−1 where the measurement bias resulting from isotopic variation between sample and calibration gases can be corrected for. The method was completed with a comprehensive uncertainty budget from which considerations on the importance of spectroscopic specific biases could be deduced. The method was validated using 29 standards produced by 15 National Metrology Institutes/Designated Institutes, including the Central and a Regional Calibration Laboratory (McClenny et al 2002 J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc. 52 542–62) from the World Meteorological Organization (2011 WMO/TD-No. 1560, Ed.: Hohenpeissenberg Metrological Observatory), with δ13C values in CO2 ranging from −0.4‰ to −67‰ versus VPDB. The standards were all produced with CO2 mole fractions typical of background atmosphere calibration gases (either 380 µmol mol−1 or 480 µmol mol−1), and reference values for each of them were established during a comparison performed with a GC-FID analyzer, insensitive to their isotopic composition. Measurements have confirmed that a Δδ13C of 1‰ between sample and calibration gases can bias the CO2 mole fraction measurements made by FTIR by 4 nmol mol−1 and a Δδ18O of 1‰ by 2 nmol mol−1. These biases can be corrected with the method described here, allowing FTIR based measurements of the CO2 mole fraction with standard uncertainties reaching 0.05 µmol mol−1 to be achieved, even if sample and calibration gases isotopic ratios differ. These findings have significant implications for the use of CO2 calibration mixtures in particular for the atmospheric community, when high accuracy measurements are required.

Simultaneous Raman and pyrometric temperature measurements in shock-wave-compressed toluene

We fielded experiments to compare temperatures measured simultaneously by pyrometry and Raman spectroscopy in toluene shocked to 9 GPa. A 0.5 mm thick toluene sample was compressed between sapphire windows by plate impact from a gas gun. As the shock wave reverberated between the windows, the pressure increased stepwise to about 9 GPa. While the sample was near its peak pressure, we measured the Raman spectrum and determined temperature from the ratio of the Stokes and anti-Stokes intensities. Simultaneously, we measured the sample thermal radiance from the C-H vibration bands that occur between 3.2 and 3.6 μm to determine temperature pyrometrically. The pyrometer used a biased indium antimonide detector paired with a custom transimpedance amplifier, a system capable of temperature measurements as low as about 400 K. The Raman measurements gave a temperature of 530 ± 25 K in the bulk volume of toluene. Pyrometry gave a temperature of 496 + 15/−20 K, which is in reasonable agreement with the Raman measurement. Comparisons of this type are necessary to validate pyrometry as a temperature diagnostic in dynamic experiments.

Indium antimonide detector for spectral characterization of terahertz sources

The goal of this study was to establish conditions under which a magnetic-field-tunable InSb detector can be used to characterize the radiation spectrum of terahertz (THz) sources. The response of a bulk InSb detector to a monochromatic radiation with the frequency 0.1 < f < 4.6 THz was studied at liquid helium temperatures and magnetic fields B up to 5 T. A constant voltage (measurements of photocurrent) or a constant current (measurements of photoresistance) biasing condition was tested, and both signals were found to be strongly influenced by magnetoresistance of the detector. At f≲0.5 THz, a photoresponse was observed in the whole range of B, which reflected a non-resonant absorption by free electrons and had no relation to cyclotron-resonance-related transitions. Resonant transitions developed gradually at f≳0.5 THz and dominated the spectra only at f≳1.0 THz. Thus, we show that only at this latter frequency range, the detector can be used for a spectral characterization of unknown sources. To avoid false interpretation of measured signals, a detector should be supplied with a 1-THz high-pass filter.

Improved retrieval of gas abundances from near-infrared solar FTIR spectra measured at the Karlsruhe TCCON station

Abstract. We present a modified retrieval strategy for solar absorption spectra recorded by the Karlsruhe Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectrometer, which is operational within the Total Carbon Column Observing Network (TCCON). In typical TCCON stations, the 3800–11 000 cm−1 spectral region is measured on a single extended Indium Gallium Arsenide (InGaAs) detector. The Karlsruhe setup instead splits the spectrum across an Indium Antimonide (InSb) and InGaAs detector through the use of a dichroic beam splitter. This permits measurements further into the mid-infrared (MIR) that are of scientific interest, but are not considered TCCON measurements. This optical setup induces, however, larger variations in the continuum level of the solar spectra than the typical TCCON setup. Here we investigate the appropriate treatment of continuum-level variations in the retrieval strategy using the spectra recorded in Karlsruhe. The broad spectral windows used by TCCON require special attention with respect to residual curvature in the spectral fits. To accommodate the unique setup of Karlsruhe, higher-order discrete Legendre polynomial basis functions have been enabled in the TCCON retrieval code to fit the continuum. This improves spectral fits and air-mass dependencies for affected spectral windows. After fitting the continuum curvature, the Karlsruhe greenhouse gas records are in good agreement with other European TCCON data sets.

Profiling Endosperm Purity of Commercial Mill Streams Preceded by Debranning Using Quantitative Chemical Imaging

Vibrational spectroscopic data obtained simultaneously in a rectangular detector array facilitates chemical analysis of the heterogeneous mixture of solids that constitutes wheat flour. Analyses of 81,920 near infrared spectra followed by partial least squares data treatment enables determination of purity with respect to endosperm versus nonendosperm content for each individual pixel in the image. Heterogeneity is revealed by the resulting image, and a mathematical weighted summation provides the composite composition for the field of view. The advantages of the solid-state technology employed in this method include the high sensitivity of individual indium antimonide detector elements and the programmed electronic wavelength switching of the liquid crystal tunable filter, which operates with no moving parts. The organic chemical content of endosperm (primarily starch and protein) is compared to nonendosperm components (cell walls, aleurone, pericarp, etc.) using the vibrational spectroscopic response of...

Focus on lasers and imaging

Focus on lasers and imaging

Three-dimensional modeling and simulation of large-format hybrid indium antimonide detector arrays

Infrared sensors, such as indium antimonide (InSb) detectors, are generally required to be cooled to 77 K in operation. High fracture probability under thermal shock, especially in large InSb infrared focal plane arrays (IRFPAs), limits their applicability. It is necessary to establish a realistic three-dimensional (3-D) structural model of large-format InSb IRFPAs. However, few data are available on 3-D high-fidelity structural modeling and simulation of large IRFPAs due to their complicated structure and huge meshing numbers. A simple equivalent modeling method had been used in our early works, which could reduce meshing numbers, but did not consider the complicated structure, and also brought a new problem that the equivalent outer region of the model was not consistent with the actual IRFPAs. To solve the problems, an improved equivalent modeling method is proposed, where a small-format array is first split into two parts and then employed to equivalently replace the real large-format array. A 3-D high-fidelity structural model of large-format hybrid InSb IRFPAs is developed; here, a 32×32 array is adopted to replace the real 128×128 array. The results show that the simulated stress and strain distribution characteristics of InSb chip are well in agreement with the fracture photograph of actual 128×128 InSb IRFPAs in testing, verifying the validity and feasibility of the 3-D structural model of large-format IRFPAs. All these are beneficial to further explore fracture mechanisms and improve the reliability of large-format hybrid InSb IRFPAs.

Characterization of an infrared detector for high frame rate thermography

The use of a commercially available photodetector based infrared thermography system, operating in the 2–5 µm range, for high frame rate imaging of temperature evolutions in solid materials is investigated. Infrared photodetectors provide a very fast and precise means of obtaining temperature evolutions over a wide range of science and engineering applications. A typical indium antimonide detector will have a thermal resolution of around 4 mK for room temperature measurements, with a noise threshold around 15 to 20 mK. However the precision of the measurement is dependent on the integration time (akin to exposure time in conventional photography). For temperature evolutions that occur at a moderate rate the integration time can be relatively long, enabling a large signal to noise ratio. A matter of increasing importance in engineering is the behaviour of materials at high strain rates, such as those experienced in impact, shock and ballistic loading. The rapid strain evolution in the material is usually accompanied by a temperature change. The temperature change will affect the material constitutive properties and hence it is important to capture both the temperature and the strain evolutions to provide a proper constitutive law for the material behaviour. The present paper concentrates on the capture of the temperature evolutions, which occur at such rates that rule out the use of contact sensors such as thermocouples and electrical resistance thermometers, as their response times are too slow. Furthermore it is desirable to have an indication of the temperature distribution over a test specimen, hence the full-field approach of IRT is investigated. The paper explores the many hitherto unaddressed challenges of IRT when employed at high speed. Firstly the images must be captured at high speeds, which means reduced integration times and hence a reduction in the signal to noise ratio. Furthermore, to achieve the high image capture rates the detector array must be windowed down, therefore there is a compromise made between the extent of the full-field imaging and the temporal resolution of the image capture. In the present work a maximum image capture speed of 15 kHz was achieved with a detector array of 64 × 12 elements and an integration time was 60 µs. Results from initial work on woven E-glass/epoxy tensile specimens are presented.

Thermal buckling analysis in InSb focal plane arrays detector

When exploring the buckling mechanism in indium antimonide (InSb) detector, the global square checkerboard buckling pattern reappears in finite element simulation results. The contributions from the three layered materials to the deformations along the Z-direction are systematically analyzed. Analysis of results shows that the buckling deformation originated from the thermal difference between silicon readout integrated circuits (silicon-ROIC) and the intermediate layer directly above. Furthermore, the buckling pattern is determined by indium bumps array. After passing through the 10 μm intermediate layer, the deformation amplitude is significantly reduced from 2.23 μm to 0.24 μm. Afterwards, passing upward through the 10 μm InSb chip, the maximal deformation is further decreased to 0.09 μm.

Indium antimonide large-format detector arrays

Large format infrared imaging sensors are required to achieve simultaneously high resolution and wide field of view image data. Infrared sensors are generally required to be cooled from room temperature to cryogenic temperatures in less than 10 min thousands of times during their lifetime. The challenge is to remove mechanical stress, which is due to different materials with different coefficients of expansion, over a very wide temperature range and at the same time, provide a high sensitivity and high resolution image data. These challenges are met by developing a hybrid where the indium antimonide detector elements (pixels) are unconnected islands that essentially float on a silicon substrate and form a near perfect match to the silicon read-out circuit. Since the pixels are unconnected and isolated from each other, the array is reticulated. This paper shows that the front side illuminated and reticulated element indium antimonide focal plane developed at L-3 Cincinnati Electronics are robust, approach background limited sensitivity limit, and provide the resolution expected of the reticulated pixel array.

Development of a Multiband near-to-far Infrared Radiance COmparator (MIRCO)

In recent years, there has been a growing demand to calibrate industrial blackbodies both at short wavelengths for lower temperatures and at long wavelengths for higher temperatures. User requests cover a very wide temperature range, from −20°C to 1,500°C in the infrared bands used by thermal cameras or as defined by specific applications (especially the 1–3 μm, 3–5 μm, and 8–12 μm bands). Therefore, LNE (Laboratoire National de Metrologie et d’Essais) has developed a radiance comparator with a mirror-based optical system, an associated set of interference filter wheels, a modular holder for several infrared detectors, and a lock-in amplifier. This setup is designed to be very versatile in terms of wavelength and temperature. Targeted performances have a thermal resolution better than 0.05°C, and a known and controlled size-of-source effect (SSE). A silicon detector and a visible-to-near infrared integrating sphere were used to assess the stray light inside the housing, and supplementary baffles and stops were used to reduce it to an acceptable level. The investigation included measurement of the SSE for this comparator layout. Then, the performance in the 3–5 μm and 8–12 μm bands, using, respectively, indium antimonide (InSb) and mercury cadmium telluride (MCT) detectors, was evaluated using a water heat-pipe blackbody. This paper describes the modeling and the technical solutions implemented to optimize the optical system. Preliminary results are presented for the short-term stability, the thermal resolution between −20°C and 960°C, and also the SSE up to 60 mm in these bands.

Sensitivity improvement in surface infrared spectroscopy: Design, characteristics, and application of a high-temperature graphite source

An infrared source designed to increase the sensitivity of the technique of reflection absorption infrared spectroscopy (RAIRS) for the detection of molecular adsorbates at submonolayer coverages on metal surfaces is described. The source is based on a graphite element with a lifetime of 500 h when operated at a temperature of ∼2300 K in a static pressure of 800 Torr of argon. The design allows for rapid and easy replacement of the low cost graphite element. The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) achieved with this source for spectra obtained with both mercury cadmium telluride and indium antimonide detectors is a factor of 3-higher than obtained with a standard silicon carbide (SiC) source operated at ∼1500 K. With the higher SNR available with the graphite source it was possible to detect two vibrational features, δs(CH3) of methyl at 1247 cm–1, and ν(CH) of methylidyne at 2956 cm–1, that were not detected in previous RAIRS studies.

A 20-channel electron cyclotron emission detection system for a grating polychromator in JT-60U

A 20-channel electron cyclotron emission (ECE) detection system for the grating polychromator in JT-60U has been developed to measure electron temperature and its perturbations. Indium antimonide (InSb) detectors aligned in a row are cooled by liquid helium held by a 50 cm-diam cryostat, in which a hold time of the liquid helium reaches 7 weeks. Twenty-channel preamplifiers are dc-coupled ones, which enable to measure low-frequency ECE. From the comparison between the new system and the existing 20-channel detector system, where a refrigerator for cooling InSb detectors and ac-coupled preamplifiers are used, it is found that the signal-to-noise ratio is improved, and that small perturbations can be detected. By using this system, the electron temperature and its perturbations near the internal transport barrier in a reversed shear discharge are measured in detail.

The important role of infrared imaging in breast cancer.

The results reported support the use of IR imaging in risk assessment, detection, and as a prognostic indicator. We present preliminary evidence showing that the improvements in technology that have been incorporated into second-generation, focal-plane, indium-antimonide detector systems can significantly improve breast IR images.

Properties of indium antimonide detectors for use as transfer standards for detector calibrations

The properties of 4-mm-diameter and 7-mm-diameter liquid-nitrogen-cooled indium antimonide detectors were investigated to determine their suitability as transfer standards (i.e., reference detectors) for the detector calibration facility at the National Research Council of Canada. The spectral responsivity of the InSb detectors in the spectral range 1000-3000 nm was determined by atwo-step procedure involving the use of germanium transfer standardsand suitably characterized thermopiles. It is shown that thelong-term reproducibility of the InSb detector calibrations is approximately ?1%. The uniformity and linearity as a function of wavelength, as well as the background current noise and drift of thetwo detectors, are compared. It is shown that the 7-mm-diameter detector is clearly superior to the 4-mm one for use as a transfer standard. It is estimated that the overall accuracy of the calibrations of the two InSb detectors is ?2% in the range 1200-2800 nm.