Indiscriminate Use Of Antibiotics Research Articles

Prevalence of Isolated Bacteria from Urinary Tracts and Antibiotic Resistance Trend in Peja Region, Kosovo

Background: Urinary tract infections are the most frequent bacterial infections, causing significant morbidity at a high cost of effectiveness. The main purpose of the research was to determine the prevalence and the resistance of gram-negative bacteria in urine samples in the Peja region. Methods and Results: This cohort longitudinal, prospective-retrospective study was conducted in the microbiological laboratories of the regional hospital in Peja and the Regional Centre of Public Health in Peja. The research includes all urine samples tested for gram-negative bacteria from 2018 to 2020. A total of 12,791 urine samples were analyzed in the study, of which 2316 (18.11%) were positive for the growth of gram-negative pathogenic strains, and 10,479 (81.89%) were negative. The most frequently isolated bacteria were E. coli (83.2%), followed by Proteus spp., Klebsiella spp., Acinetobacter spp., and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (5.18%, 4.79%, 2.42% and 2.37% respectively). From the data of our research, we can conclude that E. coli, Proteus spp, and Klebsiella spp. were the three commonly isolated microorganisms in the Peja region. A trend of increased resistance of E. coli to ampicillin was registered from 37.41% in 2018 to 65.58% in 2020; to tobramycin - from 3.68% in 2018 to 5.97% in 2020; to cefalexin from 29.41% in 2018 to 31.09% in 2020; to cefuroxime from 23.7% in 2018 to 28.99% in 2020; to cefotaxime from 21.32% in 2018 to 27.94% in 2020; ceftazidime from 18.84% in 2018 to 27.54% in 2020; to piperacillin from 28.73% in 2018 to 34.97% in 2020; to nitrofurantoin from 5.98% in 2018 to 8.21% in 2020; and to trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole from 35.56% in 2018 to 42.77% in 2020. In the analyzed period, a trend of the increased resistance of Proteus spp. to ampicillin was registered from 31.43% in 2018 to 81.25% in 2020 and to imipenem from 4.76% in 2018 to 12% in 2020. The resistance rates of Klebsiella spp. strains isolated in 2020 (100% to ampicillin, 5% to amikacin, 38.46% to ofloxacin, 8.7% to imipenem, 33.33% to nitrofurantoin) were higher than those reported in 2018 (87.5%, 2.94%, 34.62%, 6.25%, and 28.21%, respectively). Conclusion: Data from this study can be used to control antibiotic susceptibility trends, create local antibiotic policies, and help clinicians in the rational choice of antibiotic therapy, thereby preventing indiscriminate antibiotic use.

Capacity of biofilm production by filamentous fungi isolated from the uterus of susceptible mares

Fungi are opportunistic microorganisms that adhere to surfaces. Their intrauterine growth is influenced by impaired immunity, indiscriminate use of antibiotics, and poor vulvar conformation. Many publications use yeast research models, but only some report biofilm production by filamentous fungi. This work aimed to biofilm capacity from isolates of filamentous fungi found in uterine samples from susceptible mares. Uterine saline lavage samples from 41 mares with a history of subfertility were collected and sent to LABRAPE-UFRPE, Brazil. Samples were cultured on Sabouraud Dextrose Agar plates with 10% chloramphenicol and incubated at 25°C for up to 15 days, inspecting every 24 hours. After development of the colonies, identification used the macro and micromorphological aspects of the somatic and reproductive structures, comparing them with the literature. To induce biofilm production, isolates were re-cultured on Sabouraud dextrose agar at 37°C for 72 h. Conidia were collected by washing the surface of the cultures using 5mL PBS, pH 7.2, supplemented with 0.025% (v/v) Tween 20. Subsequently, conidia were counted in a Neubauer chamber, and the inoculum was adjusted to the concentration of 1 × 105 cells in RPMI 1640and buffered to pH 7.0. Biofilms were produced in 96-well microtiter plates by adding 200µL of standardized cell suspension in MOPS-RPMI 1640 buffer in each well, at each determined period (24, 48, 72, and 96h) then incubated at 37°C. At each time interval, biofilms were washed three times with PBS pH 7.2 then quantified using crystal violet technique (absorbance 570nm). Of the samples, 12.2% were positive for fungal endometritis, with Cladosporium spp. isolated in 60% of the positive samples, Trichosporon spp. and Penicillium spp. in 20% of the positive samples each. After induction of biofilm production, fungi of the genus Cladosporium spp. and Penicillium spp. showed a high biofilm production capacity, with a growth peak at 48 hours after incubation and a gradual decrease in this production in the subsequent hours. Cladosporium spp. showed low biofilm production until 96h of incubation, and Penicillium spp zeroed its formation simultaneously. In conclusion filamentous fungi isolated from the uterus of mares have a greater biofilm production capacity after 48 hours incubation, which tends to decrease over time but can be maintained for up to 96 hours, depending on the gender involved in the infection, as well as the quantity and quality of the substrate available.

Essential oils and essential oil compounds in animal production as antimicrobials and anthelmintics: an updated review.

Several countries have shown an increased prevalence of drug resistance in animal production due to the indiscriminate use of antibiotics and antiparasitics in human and veterinary medicine. This article aims to review existing methods using naturally occurring essential oils (EOs) and their isolated compounds (EOCs) as alternatives to antimicrobials and antiparasitic compounds in animal production and, consequently, to avoid resistance. The most-reported mechanism of action of EOs and EOCs was cell membrane damage, which leads to the leakage of cytoplasmic content, increased membrane permeability, inhibition of metabolic and genetic pathways, morphologic changes, antibiofilm effects, and damage to the genetic material of infections. In parasites, anticoccidial effects, reduced motility, growth inhibition, and morphologic changes have been reported. Although these compounds regularly show a similar effect to those promoted by traditional drugs, the elucidation of their mechanisms of action is still scarce. The use of EOs and EOCs can also positively influence crucial parameters in animal production, such as body weight gain, feed conversion rate, and cholesterol reduction, which also positively impact meat quality. The application of EOs and EOCs is enhanced by their association with other natural compounds or even by the association with synthetic chemicals, which has been found to cause synergism in their antimicrobial effect. By reducing the effective therapeutical/prophylactic dose, the chances of off-flavors – the most common issue in EO and EOC application – is greatly mitigated. However, there is very little work on the combination of EOs and EOCs in large in vivo studies. In addition, research must apply the correct methodology to properly understand the observed effects; for example, the use of only high concentrations may mask potential results obtained at lower dosages. Such corrections will also allow the elucidation of finer mechanisms and promote better biotechnologic use of EOs and EOCs. This manuscript presents several information gaps to be filled before the use of EOs and EOCs are fully applicable in animal production.

Observational Studies of Prescription Pattern and Use of Antibiotics in Selected Rural Areas

Rising antibiotic resistance amidst indiscriminate antibiotic use is a growing public health concern. Efforts to curb this trend have had limited success, particularly in developing nations. This study investigated antibiotic prescription patterns in India relative to the WHO's Aware, Watch, and Revise (AWaRe) antibiotic grouping framework. Data was collected from retail and hospital-affiliated pharmacy outlets. Without prescription, 64% of antibiotics sold at retail outlets and 48% at hospital pharmacies. Lack of awareness on appropriate antibiotic use was observed among patients and pharmacists. Over-the-counter antibiotic purchases were higher in underserved communities with less healthcare access. Increased education on proper antibiotic use and resistance is urgently needed. More regulated antibiotic sales and expanded access to affordable healthcare are needed to curb rising antibiotic resistance. Better antibiotic stewardship through improved prescription practices aligning with the WHO's AWaRe framework can help optimize antibiotic use and preserve effectiveness of existing drugs.

Chronic Kidney Disease: A Case Series

Chronic renal failure (CRF) is a progressive and irreversible deterioration of renal functions. Diabetes, hypertension, indiscriminate use of antibiotics and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are major contributory factors of chronic kidney disease (CKD) or end stage renal disease (ESRD). (1,2) In modern system, the role of medicinal treatment is very limited while haemo or peritoneal dialysis is cumbersome and expensive. Economic and legal issues limit the possibility of renal transplant and depends on the availability of donor.(3) On the other hand, homoeopathic treatment, if sought at an early stage, can help in maintaining or to some extent reviving renal functions by lowering serum creatinine thereby improving GFR. Gupta et. al. has done some work on the medicinal treatment of this difficult disease and have published the results.(4)

Protocatechualdehyde-ferric iron tricomplex embedded gelatin hydrogel with adhesive, antioxidant and photothermal antibacterial capacities for infected wound healing promotion

Because of the indiscriminate use of antibiotics and the increasing threat of drug-resist bacteria, there is an urgent need to develop novel antibacterial strategies to combat infected wounds. In this work, stable tricomplex molecules (PA@Fe) assembled by protocatechualdehyde (PA) and ferric iron (Fe) were successfully synthesized and then embedded in the gelatin matrix to obtain a series of Gel-PA@Fe hydrogels. The embedded PA@Fe served as a crosslinker to improve the mechanical, adhesive and antioxidant properties of hydrogels through coordination bonds (catechol-Fe) and dynamic Schiff base bonds, meanwhile acting as a photothermal agent to convert near-infrared (NIR) light into heat to kill bacteria effectively. Importantly, in vivo evaluation through an infected full-thickness skin wound mice model revealed that Gel-PA@Fe hydrogel developed collagen deposition, and accelerated reconstruction of wound closure, indicating great potential of Gel-PA@Fe hydrogel in promoting the healing process of infected full-thickness wounds.

Detection of Antimicrobial Resistance Genes from Shiga Toxin Producing Escherichia coli by Multiplex PCR

Background: Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) strains are considered to be most common food-borne enteric zoonotic pathogen, causing various disease conditions in both animals and humans and are highly pathogenic to human in low infectious doses. Resistance against antibiotics by STEC is also a big concern now a days. Hence in view of the public health significance of STEC, present work was planned to know the combination of phenotypic and genotypic resistance patterns against certain most commonly used antibiotics by using disk diffusion method and multiplex PCR respectively. Methods: A total of 426 PCR confirmed STEC isolates isolated from pooled samples (animal faecal(179), farm water(122) and human faecal samples (125) of different livestock farms in and around Proddatur andhra Pradesh, were subjected to antibiotic sensitivity test by using disc diffusion method. The isolates that showed resistance for tetracycline, streptomycin, sulphonamides and ampicillin were selected and subjected to multiplex PCR for the detection of resistance genes. Result: Disk diffusion assay revealed highest phenotypic resistance for STEC isolates against Cepahlothin (100%), followed by Ampicillin (99.06%), Tetracycline (97.2%), Streptomycin (94.3%), Sulphonamides (90.8%) and Trimethoprim (84.5%). Pooled samples also revealed the presence of antimicrobial resistance genes like tetA(59.2%), tetB(43.5%), tetC (9.2%), strA (39.3%), strB(54.1%), sul1 (40.8%), sul2 (58.7%), sul3 (3.8%) and blaTEM(83.4%). These findings indicate the highest prevalence of antimicrobial resistance among the STEC isolates, which alarms indiscriminate use of antibiotics both for therapeutic purpose and as growth promoters. Strict hygienic, sanitation and HACCP programmes should be applied to counter STEC prevalence.

Therapeutic and prophylactic effects of oral administration of probiotic Enterococcus faecium Smr18 in Salmonella enterica-infected mice

Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi causes chronic enteric fever known as typhoid. Prolonged treatment regimen used for the treatment of typhoid and indiscriminate use of antibiotics has led to the emergence of resistant strains of S. enterica that has further increased the severity of the disease. Therefore, alternative therapeutic agents are urgently required. In this study, probiotic and enterocin-producing bacteria Enterococcus faecium Smr18 was compared for both its prophylactic and therapeutic efficacy in S. enterica infection mouse model. E. faecium Smr18 possessed high tolerance to bile salts and simulated gastric juice, as treatment for 3 and 2 h resulted in 0.5 and 0.23 log10 reduction in the colony forming units, respectively. It exhibited 70% auto aggregation after 24 h of incubation and formed strong biofilms at both pH 5 and 7. Oral administration of E. faecium in BALB/c mice infected with S. enterica significantly (p < 0.05) reduced the mortality of the infected mice and prevented the weight loss in mice. Administration of E. faecium prior to infection inhibited the translocation of S. enterica to liver and spleen, whereas, its administration post-infection completely cleared the pathogen from the organs within 8 days. Further, in both pre- and post-E. faecium-treated infected groups, sera levels of liver enzymes were restored back to normal; whereas the levels of creatinine, urea and antioxidant enzymes were significantly (p < 0.05) reduced compared to the untreated-infected group. E. faecium Smr18 administration significantly increased the sera levels of nitrate by 1.63-fold and 3.22-fold in pre- and post-administration group, respectively. Sera levels of interferon-γ was highest (tenfold) in the untreated-infected group, whereas the levels of interleukin-10 was highest in the post-infection E. faecium-treated group thereby indicating the resolution of infection in the probiotic-treated group, plausibly due to the increased production of reactive nitrogen intermediates.

Prevalence and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Pattern of Salmonella among Food and Food Vendors in Port Harcourt, Nigeria

Salmonella contamination in ready-to-eat food is seen as a health risk, and improper food processing puts customers at risk. This study therefore was carried out to investigate the prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of Salmonella isolated from food vendor’s hands and work bench in Port Harcourt, Rivers State. Ninety (90) samples were collected for a period of three months from three different location in Port Harcourt with five sampling points in each locations. Samples were analyzed for the presence of Salmonella organism using standard microbiological procedure for enumeration and identification. Salmonella-Shigella (SSC) counts ranged from 1.9+4.9x103cfu/g to 3.8+1.4x103cfu/g for choba and Aggrey road respectively in cooked rice, 0.2+0.3x103cfu/g to 0.9+0.4x103cfu/g for Mile 3 and Aggrey road respectively in Moi Moi, 0.6+0.5x103cfu/g to 1.5+1.5x103cfu/g for Aggrey road and Mile 3 in Salad, and 1.6+0.7x103cfu/ml to 2.6+1.7x103cfu/ml for Choba and Aggrey road in Egusi soup. Six (6) Salmonella spp were isolated in Salad and workbench from Mile 3 and Choba respectively. Salmonella showed a decreasing trend of resistance in the order: Ceporex, Gentamycin and Augmentin (100%) &gt; Nalidixic acid (83.3%) &gt; Septrin and Streptomycin (66.7%) &gt; Tarivid, Pefloxacin and Ampicilin (33.3%). The molecular identification of the Six (6) isolates using polymerase chain reaction confirmed 100% Salmonella spp isolates. The six (6) Salmonella isolates were identified with blaTEM and blaSHV gene 6(100%). Out of the Six (6) isolates, 100% had multidrug resistance index ≥ 0.2 while 0.00% had &lt;0.2 as their Multidrug Resistance Index. Conclusively, this study revealed prevalence of Salmonella spp in food and food vendors in Rivers State, posing a serious threat to consumers. Indiscriminate use of antibiotics should be discouraged to reduce the prevalence of resistant strains of Salmonella.

Exploring the prevalence and antibiotic resistance profile of Klebsiella pneumoniae and Klebsiella oxytoca isolated from clinically ill companion animals from North of Portugal

Klebsiella spp. is an important pathogen in humans and animals and due to the indiscriminate use of antibiotics, its prevalence and antibiotic resistance has increased in companion animals. The main goal of this study was to investigate the prevalence and antibiotic resistance of Klebsiella spp. isolated from clinically ill cats and dogs admitted in veterinary clinics in the North of Portugal. A total of 255 clinical specimens were collected and, after isolation, the identification of Klebsiella strains was performed using the BBL Crystal™ identification system and confirmed by PCR-based sequencing with specific primers. Antibiotic resistance profile was determined through the disc diffusion method. Beta-lactam resistance genes were screened through a multiplex PCR assay.Fifty Klebsiella strains were isolated and, 39 were identified as Klebsiella pneumoniae and 11 as Klebsiella oxytoca. Thirty-one were recovered from dogs and 19 from cats. The Klebsiella isolates were recovered mainly from skin wounds, respiratory tract, and from urine. Fifty percent of K. oxytoca and K. pneumoniae isolates revealed to be Multidrug Resistant (MDR) strains, with most of them positive for the presence of blaTEM-like and blaSHV genes.This data shows that MDR Klebsiella are highly disseminated in companion animals and that extended-spectrum beta-lactamases can be easily found among these isolates. This highlights the potential role of dogs and cats as a reservoir of resistant Klebsiella spp. that have the potential to be transmitted to humans.

Antibiotic Resistance of Escherichia coli and Salmonella Species Isolated from Table Eggs in Morocco

The development of antimicrobial resistance has become a severe global public health emergency. Foods of animal origin are considered possible drivers of resistant bacteria, including Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Salmonella spp. It is associated with the indiscriminate use of antibiotics, resulting in the inability to treat patients infected with antibiotic-resistant pathogens and a high risk of transmission of these resistant pathogens. The current study aimed to determine the prevalence and antibiotic resistance of E. coli and Salmonella spp. in raw table eggs in Morocco. A total of 870 table eggs resulting from 290 samples (3 eggs = 1 sample), were purchased from ambulatory sellers, street vendors, kiosks, and neighborhood markets from different cities in Morocco and transferred to the laboratory in the Hassan II Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine Institute of Rabat, Morocco. The egg shells and contents were tested separately then the isolation and identification of bacterial pathogens were performed according to the Moroccan Standard Norms. The bacterial isolates were tested for susceptibility to six commonly used antibiotics, namely nalidixic acid (30 µg), kanamycin (30 µg), gentamycin (15 µg), ciprofloxacin (15 µg), tetracycline (30 µg), and amoxicillin (10 μg). The findings revealed that 38 samples (13%) tested positive for E. coli of which 9% were on egg shells, and 4% were in egg content, while for Salmonella enteritidis (S. enteritidis), 5 samples (2%) tested positive and only in the egg contents. Escherichia coli showed the highest resistance to amoxicillin, followed by tetracycline and nalidixic acid with 92.10%, 84.21%, and 50%, respectively, and was sensitive to ciprofloxacin (84.21%), kanamycin (65.79%), and gentamicin (60.54%). Salmonella enteritidis had the highest resistance against tetracycline (80%), followed by ciprofloxacin and nalidixic acid with 40% each. The highest sensitivity rates of S. enteritidis were for gentamicin, amoxicillin, and kanamycin at 80%, 80%, and 40%, respectively. Given that these resistant bacteria could potentially be transferred to humans through eggs or egg products, it is necessary to employ strict hygiene measures and provide a wise and legal use of antibiotics in animal breeding.

A clash of quorum sensing vs quorum sensing inhibitors: an overview and risk of resistance.

Indiscriminate use of antibiotics to treat microbial pathogens has caused emergence of multiple drug resistant strains. Most infectious diseases are caused by microbes that are capable of intercommunication using signaling molecules, which is known as quorum sensing (QS). Such pathogens express their pathogenicity through various QS-regulated virulence factors. Interference of QS could lead to decisive results in controlling such pathogenicity. Hence, QS inhibition has become an attractive new approach for the development of novel drugs. Many quorum sensing inhibitors (QSIs) of diverse origins have been reported. It is imperative that more such anti-QS compounds be found and studied, as they have significant effect on microbial pathogenicity. This review attempts to give a brief account of QS mechanism, its inhibition and describes some compounds with anti-QS potential. Also discussed is the possibility of emergence of quorum sensing resistance.

Worldwide Prevalence of Carbapenem Resistance in Acinetobacter baumannii

IntroductionAcinetobacter baumanniiis an opportunistic pathogen that can cause hospital-acquired infections. Indiscriminate use of antibiotics has led to a significant increase in the incidence of acquired drug resistance among clinical isolates ofA. baumannii. This study aims to assess the resistance to carbapenems betweenA. baumanniiclinical isolates using a meta-analysis study.MethodsThe databases of Scopus, PubMed, Google Scholar, Web of Science, and Iranian national databases (SID, Magiran, and IranMedex) were searched until 2020. Studies were analyzed based on the random-effects model. Heterogeneity between studies was evaluated by calculating theI2index. Statistical analysis was performed using STATA (version 14.2; StataCorp, College Station, Tex).ResultsFinally, 46 articles were found to meet the criteria, with a total sample size of 62,779 cases. Resistance to imipenem and meropenem was detected in 62% and 64% of cases, respectively. The sensitivity ofA. baumanniiclinical isolates to imipenem and meropenem was obtained at 34% and 37%, respectively. In addition, the highest resistance to imipenem and meropenem was estimated in Asia (67% and 70%, respectively). However, the lowest resistance to imipenem and meropenem was estimated in Europe (50% and 57%, respectively).ConclusionThe carbapenem resistance ofA. baumanniiis a global health problem that affects public health in the community. Based on our results, because of the high resistance ofA. baumanniito carbapenems, the extensive use of carbapenems is less recommended.

Antibacterial and antibiofilm efficacy of repurposing drug hexestrol against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

There has been an explosion in the prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) because of the indiscriminate use of antibiotics. In this study, we repurposed hexestrol (HXS) as an antibacterial agent to fight planktonic and biofilm-related MRSA infections. HXS is a nonsteroidal synthetic estrogen that targets estrogen receptors (ERα and ERβ) and has been used as a hormonal antineoplastic agent. In our work, the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were determined using the antimicrobial susceptibility of MSSA and MRSA strains. Anti-biofilm activity was evaluated using biofilm inhibition and eradication assays. Biofilm-related genes were analyzed with or without HXS treatment using RTqPCR analysis of S. aureus. HXS was tested using the checkerboard dilution assay to identify antibiotics that may have synergistic effects. Measurement of ATP and detection of ATPase allowed the determination of bacterial energy metabolism. As shown in the results, HXS showed effective antimicrobial activity against S. aureus, including both type strains and clinical isolations, with MICs of 16 µg/mL. Sub-HXS strongly inhibited the adhesion of S. aureus. The content of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) and the relative transcription levels of eno, sacC, clfA, pls and fnbpB were reduced after HXS treatment. HXS showed antibacterial effects against S. aureus and synergistic activity with aminoglycosides by directly interfering with cellular energy metabolism. HXS inhibits adhesion and biofilm formation and eradicates biofilms formed by MRSA by reducing the expression of related genes. Furthermore, HXS increases the susceptibility of aminoglycosides against MRSA. In conclusion, HXS is a repurposed drug that may be a promising therapeutic option for MRSA infection.

The Soaring Increase of Resistant Microorganisms Demands Immediate Action Solutions are Available

Clinical environments provide an ideal reservoir for the growth, proliferation, and transmission of pathogenic organisms. Surfaces in hospitals e.g. hospital furniture, ECG lead wires and other cables, push buttons of infusion pumps, control knobs of ventilation machines, textiles as well as implantable biomaterials like central venous catheters, urologic catheters, endotracheal tubes are contaminated increasingly frequent with multiresistant microorganisms. These microorganisms are distributed by the hands of the nursing personnel throughout the hospital with serious, life threatening consequences. 1.8 million patients suffer from a nosocomial infection per year in Europe; approximately 180,000 deaths are attributed to these infections. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) estimates that 2 million U.S. patients per year acquire a hospital-related infection. These infections cause 90,000 deaths each year and cost an average of $47,000 per patient to treat. The added cost to hospitals is $4.8 billion anually for extended care treatment. Microorganisms show an increasing rate of resistance against the majority of antibiotics including carbapenems as last available antibiotic. 700,000 deaths have been rеρorted worldwide, 30 000 deaths alone in Europe during the last year due to infections where no effective antimicrobial substance was available. The use of disinfectants is ostensibly intended to remove/kill pathogens on surfaces. However studies have shown that more than one-half the time, surfaces are not adequately cleaned or are re-contaminated within minutes. Much emphasis has been put therefore on hand disinfection. However there are also rеρorts of the emergence of alcohol tolerant/insensitive microorganisms e.g., vancomycin resistant enterococci. This phenomenon has the potential to undermine the effectiveness of alcohol based disinfectant standard precautions. The reason for this dramatic development of resistant microorganisms is still in debate. The indiscriminate use of antibiotics for prevention of a bacterial superinfections e.g. sinusitis, otitis media after a viral infections is frequently incriminated, however this seems to have little impact on the occurrence of multi-resistant hospital pathogens in general. However individual patients are seriously affected by the selection of multi-resistant pathogens. In contrast there is increasing evidence that the widespread use of disinfectants is responsible: disinfectants - analogous to antibiotics - must be incorporated into the metabolism of microorganisms. This is inevitably associated with induction of resistance by transfer of resistance plasmids e.g. induction of efflux pumps. 10 167 рublications (PUBMed Jan. 2023) are available in the international literature which document the resistance of microorganisms against disinfectants; 649 рublications describe the cross resistance with antibiotics, at the same time there are 11 237 publications on the toxicity of disinfectants.

Prevalence and risk factors for Lower Respiratory Tract Infection: a Multicenter study, at Kebbi State, Nigeria

Lower respiratory tract infections are one of the major public health concerns responsible for morbidity and mortality in low and middle income countries. Improved surveillance of the causative agents as well as identification of risk factors might enable targeted intervention. The aim of this study was to establish the incidence and risk factors of lower respiratory tract infection in Kebbi State. Three hundred and fifty sputum samples were collected from consented patients with the symptoms of LRTI attending six different hospitals in Kebbi State. The samples were all screened for bacterial pathogens using standard microbiological techniques. The bacterial isolates were identified using conventional biochemical tests and then confirmed using commercial biochemical test kit microbact 24E (Oxoid UK) according to manufacturerer’s instruction. Staphylococcus aureus was the most predominant bacteria isolated in this location followed by Klebsiella pneumoniae with an estimated percentage occurrence of 31.1% and 22.2% respectively. Other bacteria isolated include Klebsiella oxytoca (13.9%), Escherichia coli (11.1%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (5.6%), Aeromonas hydrophila (5.6%), Acinetobacter baumannii (4.6%), B. pseudomallei (2.8%) and Proteus spp (2.8%) in order of ranking. It was found out that, the young adults and the elderly were most at risk of a severe respiratory condition. The result also shows that LRTI were more common in males than in females. A significant number (32%) of patients who are exposed to either agricultural or industrial chemicals have positive bacterial growth. The present study found that prior antibiotic treatment was also a significant risk factor for LRTIs. In conclusion, it was found out that, Staphylococcus aureus is the most predominant bacteria isolated. Exposure to smoke from firewood and chemicals from both agricultural or industrial chemicals as well as indiscriminate use of antibiotics were the risk factors for LRTIs in this location.

Detection of Antibiotic Residues in Broiler Meat by Thin Layer Chromatography

Antibiotic usage has played a significant role in the growth of poultry industry all across the globe. But because of indiscriminate use of antibiotics, several incidences related to occurrence of antibiotic residues in broiler meat have been reported. In the context of Nepal, only limited studies have been attempted to assess the presence of antibiotic residues in poultry meat and thus this study aims to determine the same in Dharan. A questionnaire survey was conducted among poultry farmers and veterinary shops in Dharan where 44% of respondents had training on poultry farming but only 4 % had knowledge on antimicrobial resistance in microorganism. The survey report showed maximum usage of doxycycline and tetracycline in poultry farms. Four types of broiler meat, namely, liver, breast muscle, kidney and gizzard were collected and screening of antibiotic residues (ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, enrofloxacin, gentamycin and tetracycline) in them was performed by thin layer chromatography. On thin layer chromatography, 9%, 17%, 8%, 3% and 21% of samples were detected with ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, enrofloxacin, gentamycin and tetracycline residues respectively. Highest occurrence of ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, enrofloxacin and tetracycline residues were found in kidney (16%), gizzard (32%), liver (12%) and kidney (36%) samples respectively.

Action of crude ethanol extract of Hymenaea martiana leaf, gallic acid, and polypyrrole (PPy) against Aeromonas hydrophila.

Pisciculture represents one of the industries with the fastest growth rates worldwide. However, it presents obstacles to its development, such as bacteriosis, which is conventionally treated with antibiotics. The indiscriminate and inappropriate use of antibiotics can lead to bacterial resistance, thus alternatives to the use of antibiotics have been researched. The study aimed to analyze the potential of crude ethanol extract (CEE) from Hymenaea martiana leaf, gallic acid (GA), and polypyrrole (PPy) against Aeromonas hydrophila. Tests were performed to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of the compounds individually and in synergy (checkerboard) against A. hydrophila and in silico tests between the compounds evaluated. The CEE of H. martiana leaf and PPy were effective against A. hydrophila with MBC results of 3125 μg/mL for the CEE of H. martiana and 125 μg/mL for PPy. Evaluating the GA, a MIC and MBC of 125 μg/mL was obtained. In the interaction tests (checkerboard, using PPy/CEE and PPy/GA), there was a significant reduction in individual introductions. Thus, for the PPy/CEE tests, we had a reduction of MIC/MBC to 1.95 and 781.25 μg/mL, and for the synergy tests between PPy/GA to 7.8125 and 31.125 μg/mL, respectively. The synergy tests are encouraging, and it is possible to verify a decrease of up to 98% in the introduction of PPy, 75% in CEE for H. martiana and 75.1% for GA, when compared to their individual tests. The tests with GA are encouraging due to GA's effectiveness as an antimicrobial agent and high synergy with polypyrrole, both in vitro results and molecular docking experiments showed the actions at the same activation site in A. hydrophila. In vivo tests evaluating isolated components of CEE from H. martiana in synergy with PPy should be performed, to verify the quality of the interactions and the improvement of the immune responses of the animals. It was evidenced that gallic acid, a substance isolated from the extract, tends to have more promising results. This is relevant since the industry has been developing these compounds for different uses, thus providing easier access to the product. Thus, the present study indicates an efficient alternative in the use of bioactive compounds as substitutes for conventional antimicrobials.

Isolation and characterization of enteroaggregative Escherichia coli among the causes of bacterial diarrhea in children

Diarrhea is a public health problem and an important cause of morbidity and mortality, enteroaggregative Escherichia coli (EAEC) have been recognized increasingly as agents of diarrhea in developing and in industrial countries. So the aim of this study is to study the prevalence of EAEC, its virulence factors and study it´s resistance to antibiotics. Results showed that E. coli represent 86 (32.9%) of the isolated bacteria. the high percentage 60% were EAEC, plasmid-encoded toxin (pet) was the marker most prevalent detected 14/30(28%) than EAST1(for EaggEC heat-stable enterotoxin 1)which detected in 9/30(18%) of EAEC and two virulence genes (pet+ and EAST1+) were found in7/30(14 %) of EAEC. 10% of isolates were contained capsule but only 3.3%isolates of E. coli have Type Ι pili while all the isolates possess Type ΙΙΙ pili. The results in the present study indicated that all E. coli were negative to Congo red dye agar test in contrast high percent of E. coli isolates were able to produce biofilm (86.7%) with different degree of thickness, while 20%isolates were urease positive after 24- 48 hrs, and 10% isolates were able to produce amylase. All isolates of E. coli were unable to produce Lecithinase, nuclease and hemolysin. While, 93.3% of E. coli isolates produced β-lactamase. The frequency of Sorbitol E. coli fermenter was 66.7%. In this study EAEC isolates were resistance (100%) to Penicillin and Ampicillin, High resistance(96.7%) was observed to each of Ceftriaxone, Cefotaxime and Trimethoprim. and Tetracycline (76.7%), resistance percentage of Both Amikacin and Rifampicin were (40%) and (33.3%) respectively. Higher sensitivity was reported to Gentamicin (63.3%), Ciprofloxacin(60%) then Nitrofurantoin (56.7%). The data from this study draw attention to the importance of notifying diarrheal disease. The high level of antimicrobial resistance observed in our study raises a broader discussion about the indiscriminate use or misuse of antibiotics and the risks of empirical antibiotic therapy in children of a very young age.

Determination of Antimicrobial Resistance Gene Variations Using Tet and Str Genes in Freshwater Fish Species.

With the rapid development of aquaculture, antibiotics are widely used for prophylactic and therapeutic purposes to reduce economic losses caused by disease outbreaks. Considering that most antibiotics applied to humans and animals are partially metabolized and not eliminated, it is evident that these antibiotic residues can have negative effects on natural aquatic organisms after reaching the receiving environment, such as rivers and reservoirs. Therefore, it is believed that this indiscriminate use of antibiotics is now beginning to affect aquatic organisms in natural environments, outside of closed environments. In this study, tissue samples were taken from seven fish species in the Fırat River. Specific primer sets were designed for Tet and Str genes, which are known to play a role in antibiotic resistance mechanisms. The changes in gene expression levels were then examined. The results showed that the expression levels of Tet and Str genes associated with antibiotic resistance were more than two-fold higher in Cyprinus carpio and Chondrostoma regium species compared to a control group that did not use antibiotics. A moderate expression level was observed in Capoeta trutta, Acanthobrama marmid, Capoeta umbla, and Barbus grypus species. In addition, in Luciobarbus mystaceus species, the Tet gene was expressed at a meaningless level, while the Str gene was downregulated. Therefore, it is believed that this species may not have encountered or has previously encountered antibiotics at low levels, leading to the control levels of the resistance mechanism.