Indirect Input Research Articles

The antecedents of green purchase behaviour of Indian households

Environmental friendly products and packaging are necessary for survival and competing in the current markets. This paper examines the effect of green skepticism on green purchase intentions in the context of Indian households. The study proposed a model with relationships between the antecedents of green purchase intentions. The primary data (n345) is collected through a structured self-administered questionnaire, establishing validity and reliability through confirmative factor analysis (CFA). The results of structural equation modelling (SEM) support that green skepticism does not affect green purchase intentions directly but through environmental knowledge and concern. Environmental knowledge and concern have a robust direct positive effect on green purchase intentions. The study summarizes consumer skepticism as an essential indirect input to green purchase behaviour. The research contributes to the marketing literature by supporting the contention that consumer skepticism plays a vital role in green purchase behaviour and added further evidence. &nbsp

Adherence to micronutrient powder for home fortification of foods among infants and toddlers in rural China: a structural equation modeling approach

BackgroundThe WHO recommends daily use of micronutrient powder for infants and toddlers at risk of micronutrient deficiencies in low-and-middle-income countries. China has established a micronutrient powder distribution program in many rural townships and villages, yet adherence to micronutrient powder remains suboptimal; a little is known about the behavioral inputs that may influence adherence. This study examines direct and indirect behavioral inputs in micronutrient powder adherence among caregivers in rural western China following the Integrated Behavioral Model (IBM) framework.MethodsCross-sectional data were collected from April to May 2019 among 958 caregivers of children aged 6 to 24 months in six counties. Data were collected on micronutrient powder adherence behavior, direct behavioral inputs (knowledge and skills, intention, salience, environmental constraints, and habits), and indirect behavioral inputs (attitudes, perceived social norms, and personal agency). Structural equation modeling (SEM) adjusted for sociodemographic covariates was used to evaluate the IBM framework.ResultsMean micronutrient powder adherence in the previous seven days was 53.02%, and only 22.86% of caregivers consistently fed micronutrient powder from the start of micronutrient powder distribution at six months of age. The SEM model revealed small- to medium-sized effects of salience (β = 0.440, P < 0.001), intention (β = 0.374, P < 0.001), knowledge and skills (β = 0.214, P < 0.001), personal agency (st. effect = 0.172, P < 0.001), environmental constraints (β=-0.142, P < 0.001), and caregiver generation (β = 0.119, P < 0.05) on micronutrient powder adherence. Overall, 54.7% of the variance in micronutrient powder adherence was explained by the IBM framework. Salience had the largest impact on micronutrient powder adherence (Cohen’s f2 = 0.227). Compared to parent caregivers, grandparents had a higher degree of micronutrient powder adherence on average (P < 0.001), and behavioral inputs were consistent among both parent and grandparent caregivers.ConclusionThere is a need to improve micronutrient powder adherence among rural caregivers. The IBM framework showed a high degree of explanatory power in predicting micronutrient powder adherence behavior. The findings suggest that increased reminders from doctors regarding micronutrient powder and coaching to improve personal agency in micronutrient powder feeding may increase adherence.

Analysis of energy and water use in USA farmed catfish: Toward a more resilient and sustainable production system

Catfish is the largest aquaculture sector in the U.S., and there is no peer-reviewed lifecycle analysis characterizing the sector's environmental footprint. This study estimates energy and water demand per kg of catfish, based on analysis of primary data collected from businesses involved in catfish farming, hatcheries, feed mills, and processing. Further, it describes business operator perceptions of potential strategies to reduce usage. We found that direct energy inputs accounted for 49% of energy usage, while feed production, especially crop production to produce feed ingredients, comprised 39% and indirect inputs comprised 12% of usage. The largest direct energy demand came from pond aeration. Among water uses, direct water inputs, particularly for filling ponds after evaporation and harvesting, comprised the largest share (59%). Water for feed production comprised another 40%. Interviewees discussed current and potential strategies to reduce energy and water use, including automatic aerators with sensors, improved equipment, rainwater capture, and alternative harvesting practices. Shifts in crop production could also reduce catfish embodied resources. Incentives to offset costs would increase adoption. In sum, this study provides the most comprehensive exploration to date of the energy and water footprint of the largest U.S. aquaculture sector and identifies multiple opportunities that could improve the industry's resource use.

Retention of phosphorus in soils receiving bunker silo effluent

The eutrophication of freshwater systems is a pervasive issue in North America and elsewhere, which has been linked to elevated phosphorus (P) loading from watersheds. Most excess P is thought to originate from non-point agricultural sources, and less attention has been given to small rural point sources, such as bunker silos on livestock farms. Sophisticated management practices are rarely used to attenuate nutrients from bunker silo effluent, leaving simple vegetated buffer strips or riparian zones to protect surface water; however, the efficacy of these systems or larger constructed treatment systems is unclear. This study compared two systems receiving bunker silo effluent, one a natural riparian system with a vegetated buffer strip that is the most common practice and the other a constructed treatment system with a forebay, slag filter, and swale. The study quantified P retention within various subsections of each system and characterized the forms of stored P to infer the potential for remobilization. Results indicate that soils receiving bunker silo effluent represent considerable stores of legacy P in the landscape (750 and 3400 kg ha−1), the majority of which is stored in labile forms that may be vulnerable to remobilization under the waterlogged conditions that often occur in management practices and riparian zones. Some areas of the systems were able to store considerably more P than others, with the slag filter showing the greatest treatment efficacy. Spatial variability in stored P was apparent, where sections of the systems that directly received effluent retained more P than sections located farther away from bunker silos (indirect inputs). Results indicate that passive treatment systems become P saturated over time, limiting their longterm P removal efficacy. The efficacy of these systems may be improved with the inclusion of sorptive materials as a slag filter within the constructed treatment system significantly increased the life expectancy of that system. Greater understanding of both quantity and forms of P retained in systems and soils receiving bunker silo effluent will help develop management strategies that are more effective and longer-lasting for reducing excess P losses to surface water bodies.

Analysis of Pathways to Enhancing Facility Utilization under the Direct Health Facility Financing Reform in Tanzania

Abstract Tanzania undertook the Direct Health Facility Financing (DHFF) programme in 2017 to improve health services in various aspects including facility utilization. This study analyzed the impact of expenditure as one factor that influences facility utilization using panel data from the Facility Financial Accounting and Reporting System and District Health Information System 2. The study specifically sought to identify the effect of various categories of expenditure and facility type on utilization. Findings revealed all expenditure items significantly impacted utilization up to given levels. Furthermore, dispensary utilization was lower than utilization at council hospitals. Expenditure on direct inputs had the largest impact on facility utilization, although expenditure on indirect inputs was also important. Given the findings, directing expenditure towards as many expenditures significantly impacts utilization. Furthermore, improving quality and range of services at dispensaries can enhance their utilization. Finally, spending on indirect inputs improves results by complementing direct inputs.

Cerebellar transcranial direct current stimulation disrupts neuroplasticity of intracortical motor circuits.

While previous research using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) suggest that cerebellum (CB) influences the neuroplastic response of primary motor cortex (M1), the role of different indirect (I) wave inputs in M1 mediating this interaction remains unclear. The aim of this study was therefore to assess how CB influences neuroplasticity of early and late I-wave circuits. 22 young adults (22 ± 2.7 years) participated in 3 sessions in which I-wave periodicity repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (iTMS) was applied over M1 during concurrent application of cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation over CB (tDCSCB). In each session, iTMS either targeted early I-waves (1.5 ms interval; iTMS1.5), late I-waves (4.5 ms interval; iTMS4.5), or had no effect (variable interval; iTMSSham). Changes due to the intervention were examined with motor evoked potential (MEP) amplitude using TMS protocols measuring corticospinal excitability (MEP1mV) and the strength of CB-M1 connections (CBI). In addition, we indexed I-wave activity using short-interval intracortical facilitation (SICF) and low-intensity single-pulse TMS applied with posterior-anterior (MEPPA) and anterior-posterior (MEPAP) current directions. Following both active iTMS sessions, there was no change in MEP1mV, CBI or SICF (all P > 0.05), suggesting that tDCSCB broadly disrupted the excitatory response that is normally seen following iTMS. However, although MEPAP also failed to facilitate after the intervention (P > 0.05), MEPPA potentiated following both active iTMS sessions (both P < 0.05). This differential response between current directions could indicate a selective effect of CB on AP-sensitive circuits.

Energy efficiency of integrated crop-livestock-fish farming system for lowland irrigated ecology of eastern region, India

An integrated farming system (IFS) model was developed and assessed at ICAR-Research Complex for Eastern Region, Patna during 2015–19. The aim of the study was to analyze energy input-output relationship of the IFS model. The IFS model comprised of field crops, vegetables, fruits, green fodder, cattle, fish, duck and vermicomposting components. The analysis revealed total energy input in the IFS model as 112.62 GGJ and total energy output as 211.12 GJ. Energy use efficiency of the IFS model was analyzed to be 1.87, net energy gain recorded as 98.5 GJ. The direct and indirect energy inputs were estimated to be 14.06 GJ and 98.56 GJ, respectively while renewable and non-renewable energy inputs were estimated to be 85.04 and 27.58 GJ, respectively. Further, the total energy input in dairy unit was estimated to be 70.3 GJ of which 68.3 GJ was provided through feed, which accounted for 97% of total energy input in dairy unit, and 60% of the total energy input in IFS model. Furthermore, energy input in the forms of labour, fossil fuel, electricity, fertilizers and machinery was required maximum in the field crops while water energy input was required maximum in fish pond. Results showed that individual farming of fish, duck and cattle is not viable in terms of energy use efficiency. However, the IFS model as a whole was found to be energy efficient and can be adopted in lowland irrigated ecologies of the eastern region of the country.

Who’s Tapped Out and What’s on Tap? Tapping Into Engagement Within a Place-Based Citizen Science Effort

Participatory approaches to natural resource research, such as citizen science (CS), have become increasingly popular as they foster direct and indirect public input and engagement that can lead to the acquisition of place-specific scientific information needed to address local conservation research and management objectives. Understanding how differing degrees of participant engagement are experienced by those involved and the feasibility of experimental designs (i.e., with random assignment and control groups) to vary and measure such engagement are important and lacking. In this study, we report on an exploratory CS project measuring storm surge in three coastal estuaries, providing lessons learned about the design and sustainment of a quasi-experimental, place-based, co-created CS effort. Drawing from surveys, interviews, and field notes, we discuss methodological and ethical issues related to implementing an experimental design as well instances in which researcher-citizen scientist expectations regarding engagement were (mis)aligned and impacted participant experiences and project success. KEY INSIGHTS Place-based, natural resource focused, citizen science projects require high engagement on behalf of project facilitators and may be particularly challenging for practitioners who have university appointments and/or are working in small teams with limited funding sources. Carrying out an experimental design within place-based citizen science initiatives raises practical concerns related to getting research off the ground as well as ethical concerns surrounding participants’ engagement preferences. Practitioners must prioritize making space for negotiations and ongoing conversations about expectations for engagement, on behalf of the project facilitators and citizen scientists, at various stages of the project.

Diversified physiological sensory input connectivity questions the existence of distinct classes of spinal interneurons

SummaryThe spinal cord is engaged in all forms of motor performance but its functions are far from understood. Because network connectivity defines function, we explored the connectivity of muscular, tendon, and tactile sensory inputs among a wide population of spinal interneurons in the lower cervical segments. Using low noise intracellular whole cell recordings in the decerebrated, non-anesthetized cat in vivo, we could define mono-, di-, and trisynaptic inputs as well as the weights of each input. Whereas each neuron had a highly specific input, and each indirect input could moreover be explained by inputs in other recorded neurons, we unexpectedly also found the input connectivity of the spinal interneuron population to form a continuum. Our data hence contrasts with the currently widespread notion of distinct classes of interneurons. We argue that this suggested diversified physiological connectivity, which likely requires a major component of circuitry learning, implies a more flexible functionality.

Frictional forces and torques compensation based cascaded sliding-mode tracking control for an uncertain omnidirectional mobile robot

The work presented here deals with the trajectory-tracking control of omnidirectional mobile robots using a novel robust control technique. The aim is to achieve good tracking performance in the presence of frictional forces and torques, uncertainties, and saturated control inputs. First, a dynamic model of the omnidirectional mobile robot incorporating motor dynamics and frictional forces and torques is derived leading to a higher order system model. Subsequently, a novel cascaded sliding-mode tracking control scheme is proposed to perform trajectory-tracking with the omnidirectional mobile robot, which includes direct and indirect sliding-mode controllers in a cascaded structure. The indirect sliding-mode controller is utilized to attain tracking of the indirect reference input (i.e., desired trajectory) in the first subsystem and constitutes a direct reference input for the second one. A direct sliding-mode controller (i.e., actual control) is then designed to achieve tracking of the direct reference input. This way, the indirect reference input can be effectively manipulated through the proposed cascaded sliding-mode tracking control and individual subsystems are guaranteed to have not only Uniform Ultimate Boundedness but also asymptotic convergent performance. The stability of the closed-loop system is demonstrated via the Lyapunov stability criteria and validated through simulations. It is shown that the cascaded sliding-mode tracking control leads to good trajectory-tracking performance in the presence of uncertainties, friction, and saturated control input.

Dynamical origin for winner-take-all competition in a biological network of the hippocampal dentate gyrus.

We consider a biological network of the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG). Computational models suggest that the DG would be a preprocessor for pattern separation (i.e., a process transforming a set of similar input patterns into distinct nonoverlapping output patterns) which could facilitate pattern storage and retrieval in the CA3 area of the hippocampus. The main encoding cells in the DG are the granule cells (GCs) which receive the input from the entorhinal cortex (EC) and send their output to the CA3. We note that the activation degree of GCs is very low (∼5%). This sparsity has been thought to enhance the pattern separation. We investigate the dynamical origin for winner-take-all (WTA) competition which leads to sparse activation of the GCs. The whole GCs are grouped into lamellar clusters. In each cluster, there is one inhibitory (I) basket cell (BC) along with excitatory (E) GCs. There are three kinds of external inputs into the GCs: the direct excitatory EC input; the indirect feedforward inhibitory EC input, mediated by the HIPP (hilar perforant path-associated) cells; and the excitatory input from the hilar mossy cells (MCs). The firing activities of the GCs are determined via competition between the external E and I inputs. The E-I conductance ratio R_{E-I}^{(con)}^{*} (given by the time average of the ratio of the external E to I conductances) may represent well the degree of such external E-I input competition. It is thus found that GCs become active when their R_{E-I}^{(con)}^{*} is larger than a threshold R_{th}^{*}, and then the mean firing rates of the active GCs are strongly correlated with R_{E-I}^{(con)}^{*}. In each cluster, the feedback inhibition from the BC may select the winner GCs. GCs with larger R_{E-I}^{(con)}^{*} than the threshold R_{th}^{*} survive, and they become winners; all the other GCs with smaller R_{E-I}^{(con)}^{*} become silent. In this way, WTA competition occurs via competition between the firing activity of the GCs and the feedback inhibition from the BC in each cluster. Finally, we also study the effects of MC death and adult-born immature GCs on the WTA competition.

CARBON EMISSION EQUIVALENT OF NET ENERGY USE TO PRODUCE WHITE CORN IN ZAMBOANGA CITY, PHILIPPINES

White corn is source of caloric energy, but to produce such energy also requires enormous energy in the form of direct energy input (DEI), indirect energy input (IEI) and embedded energy input (EEI) or call this the total energy input (TEI) calculated from the major farm activities such as pre-land operation (PLO), crop establishment (CE), crop care and maintenance (CCM), harvest and postharvest (HPH). The energy coefficients, calculations and its carbon emission equivalent were based from various literatures. All Mcal energy units were converted to liter diesel oil equivalent or LDOE, where 14.414 Mcal = 1.0 LDOE = 3.36 kg CO2e emission equivalent. A total of 20 white corn growers were interviewed using a structured questionnaire. The relationships of predictors such as the DEI, IEI and EEI ha-1 were tabulated and analyzed using a descriptive statistic. Means, percentages and sums were compared. The TEI to produce white corn grown in the upland-rainfed conditions of Barangay Vitali, Zamboanga City, Philippines was calculated at 2,398.6 Mcal ha-1 or this is equal to 210.1 LDOE ha-1 or a total of 0.83 tCO2e ha-1 emission equivalent, of this amount, the DEI, IEI and EEI contributed 8.4, 90.4 and 1.2% or this is 0.07, 0.75 and 0.01 tCO2e ha-1 emission equivalent, respectively. The high IEI was attributed largely to high inorganic fertilizer usage (32.2%), chemical pesticides (18.5%), animal and man labor (44.3%) or call these the ‘energy hotspots’. Despite the application of high dosage of inorganic fertilizers, yields are low (1.82 t ha-1 ).

The Costs of Medical Care for Covid-19 Patients: A case study in Turkey

Objective: This study aims to calculate the medical costs of Covid-19 patients for hospitals based on the severity of clinical care. Design: The study was conducted in a hospital in Istanbul/Turkey. A micro-costing approach was performed using historical cost data for one year. All direct and indirect medical inputs were determined in quantities and monetary values for four types of Covid-19 patients in the hospital. Results: The analysis calculated the unit cost of an outpatient to be 459,99 ₺, while the cost per day for inpatient to be 1.184,63 ₺, for non-intubated in intensive care unit to be 1.938,11, for intubated in the intensive unit to be 2.393,99₺. The study also indicates that the total cost of a non-intubated patient in intensive care units is 1,54 times higher than the total cost per inpatient. An intubated patient’s cost is 2,08 times higher than an inpatient’s cost. Conclusion: This study indicates that Covid-19 patients incur significantly high costs for hospitals. The findings of the study provide empirical data for different types of patients which can be used in clinical management and can help all related governing bodies to plan their actions and make the decisions

Spatial-temporal characteristics and influencing factors of food production efficiency based on WEF nexus in China

Water, energy, and food (WEF) are essential material bases for mankind's survival and development. At the same time, water and energy, as necessary inputs for food production, are of great significance to food security. Scientific understanding of the water-energy-food nexus (WEF Nexus) in food production is conducive to ensuring food security and sustainable utilization of basic resources. However, current research linking the WEF Nexus with food production is lacking. Therefore, we took the WEF Nexus as an entry point to quantify China's food production efficiency and considered the direct and indirect inputs of water and energy in food production in this paper. First, we constructed an evaluation index system of food production efficiency based on the perspective of input-output and used the stochastic frontier production function model to measure the absolute efficiency values of food production. Then, GIS spatial analysis, spatial autocorrelation analysis, and the gravity center model were used to reveal the spatial-temporal pattern, spatial autocorrelation characteristics and barycenter trajectory, respectively. Finally, the Tobit model was applied to analyze the main factors which influenced the spatial pattern changes of food production efficiency. The research results indicated that China's food production efficiency was on the rise and there were spatial differences between provinces. Per capita GDP, natural disaster losses and irrigated areas of food crops were the main factors influencing China's food production efficiency. This paper contributed a new theoretical reference to the study of food production efficiency, and provided a decision-making reference for regional resource management to ensure basic resource security and sustainable development in the future.

Environmental and carbon footprint of tourist accommodation: A comparative study of popular hotel categories in Brazil and Peru

The environmental externalities of tourist accommodation are substantial, but their scientific appraisals have been far from holistic. Existing environmental impact assessment studies focus on hotel operations and exclude indirect material inputs and outputs due to data (un)availability. Important environmental ‘hotspots’ can be ignored in the result as these are often concealed in the diversity and complexity of a hotel's products and services. This study employs the method of environmental life cycle impact assessment to appraise the environmental externalities occurring through the life cycle of four popular comfort categories of hotels (hostel, budget, upmarket and luxury) in two countries of South America (Brazil and Peru). The appraisal is facilitated by the ecoinvent database (version 3.6, Allocation cut-off by classification) and the SimaPro software (version 9.1.1). The intra-sectoral and cross-country analysis reveals correlation of the environmental and carbon footprint with hotel comfort categories. The study finds that (1) treatment of solid waste generated in hotel operations; (2) construction of the hotel building; and (3) operational energy use; generate the largest footprints across all major impact categories. The contribution of (4) consumer goods, such as furniture, electric and electronic equipment, bathroom/sanitary fixtures and carpets, is also significant. The study advocates that these operational and non-operational material inputs and outputs should be accounted for in future environmental and carbon impact assessments of hotels. The study provides the first benchmarks of major embodied, indirect environmental and carbon impacts of hotels that can be used, with appropriate adjustments, in future research.

Carbon Footprint-Energy Detection for Desalination Small Plant Adaptation Response

The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) system, which can be used as a decision support tool for managing environmental sustainability, includes carbon footprint assessment as one of the available methodologies. In this study, a carbon footprint assessment was used to investigate seawater production systems of a desalination plant in Senok, Kelantan, Malaysia. Three stages of the desalination plant processing system were investigated and the inventory database was developed using the relevant model framework. Subsequently, measurements and interpretations were performed on several key indicators such as greenhouse gases, energy efficiency, acidic gases, smog, and toxic gases. Overall, the results of the study indicate that the Reverse Osmosis (RO) technology that is used in the desalination plant in the study area is one of the best options to meet the demands of the environmental sustainability agenda (SDGs). This is due to the lower carbon dioxide (CO2) emission, of about 3.5 × 10−2 kg of CO2 eq per m3/year, that was recorded for the entire operation of the system. However, several factors that influence important errors in carbon footprint decisions, such as the lack of EIA reporting data and the literature on carbon footprint in the Malaysian scenario, in addition to direct and indirect carbon input calculations, need to be identified in more detail in future research.

Nutrient-extended input–output (NutrIO) method for the food nitrogen footprint

Agro-food systems require nutrient input from several sources to provide food products and food-related services. Many of the nutrients are lost to the environment during supply chains, potentially threatening human and ecosystem health. Countries therefore need to reduce their nutrient/nitrogen footprints. These footprints are importantly affected by links between sectors. However, existing assessments omit the links between sectors, especially between the agriculture, manufacturing, and energy sectors. We propose a novel approach called the nutrient-extended input–output (NutrIO) method to determine the nutrient footprint as a sum of direct and indirect inputs throughout the supply chains from different sources of nutrients. The NutrIO method is based on a nutrient-based material flow analysis linked to economic transactions. Applying this method, we estimated the nitrogen footprint of Japan in 2011 at 21.8 kg-N capita−1yr−1: 9.7 kg-N capita−1 yr−1 sourced from new nitrogen for agriculture and fisheries, 7.0 kg-N capita−1 yr−1 from recycled nitrogen as organic fertilizers, and 5.1 kg-N capita−1 yr−1 from industrial nitrogen for chemical industries other than fertilizers. A further annexed 55.4 kg-N capita−1 yr−1 of unintended nitrogen input was sourced from fossil fuels for energy production. The nitrogen intensity of the wheat and barley cultivation sector, at 1.50 kg-N per thousand Japanese yen (JPY) production, was much higher than that of the 0.12 kg-N per thousand JPY production for the rice cultivation sector. Industrial nitrogen accounted for 2%–7% of the nitrogen footprint of each major food-related sector. The NutrIO nitrogen footprint sourced from new nitrogen for agriculture and fisheries, at 8.6 kg-N capita−1 yr−1 for domestic final products, is comparable to the food nitrogen footprint calculated by other methods, at 8.5–10.5 kg-N capita−1 yr−1. The NutrIO method provides quantitative insights for all stakeholders of food consumption and production to improve the nutrient use efficiencies of agro-food supply chains.

Sraffa’s ‘Reduction’ of the prices of basics

Piero Sraffa, in his Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities, used his so-called Standard Commodity as a tool for his exposition and for his derivation of Standard Prices. The paper shows that the reduction to dated quantities of labour, in which this exposition culminates, implies a diminution of the indirect labour inputs to any commodity over time that exhibits certain regularities, if the commodities are basics, and this helps to explain why the paradoxes of capital theory such as reswitching and reverse capital deepening are rare.

Nature vs. Stress

Games hold the potential to help many address health-related issues such as chronic stress. We investigated the use of biophilia, an affective response to nature grounded in the psychology literature, as indirect physiological input for biofeedback games. We designed and developed a non-violent exploration game, and conducted an empirical study that examined affective and physiological responses to gameplay in virtual nature and urban settings. Our results did not identify a difference in stress levels experienced by players between these two settings, but point to improved attention when playing in nature settings. We discuss implications of these findings, and discuss both difficulties in and potential future strategies for applying biophilia to the design of biofeedback games.

Dedicated C-fiber vagal sensory afferent pathways to the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus

The nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) receives viscerosensory information from the vagus nerve to regulate diverse homeostatic reflex functions. The NTS projects to a wide network of other brain regions, including the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN). Here we examined the synaptic characteristics of primary afferent pathways to PVN-projecting NTS neurons in rat brainstem slices.Expression of the Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid receptor (TRPV1+ ) distinguishes C-fiber afferents within the solitary tract (ST) from A-fibers (TRPV1-). We used resiniferatoxin (RTX), a TRPV1 agonist, to differentiate the two. The variability in the latency (jitter) of evoked excitatory postsynaptic currents (ST-EPSCs) distinguished monosynaptic from polysynaptic ST-EPSCs. Rhodamine injected into PVN was retrogradely transported to identify PVN-projecting NTS neurons within brainstem slices. Graded shocks to the ST elicited all-or-none EPSCs in rhodamine-positive NTS neurons with latencies that had either low jitter (<200 µs – monosynaptic), high jitter (>200 µs - polysynaptic inputs) or both. RTX blocked ST-evoked TRPV1 + EPSCs whether mono- or polysynaptic. Most PVN-projecting NTS neurons (17/21 neurons) had at least one input polysynaptically connected to the ST. Compared to unlabeled NTS neurons, PVN-projecting NTS neurons were more likely to receive indirect inputs and be higher order. Surprisingly, sEPSC rates for PVN-projecting neurons were double that of unlabeled NTS neurons. The ST synaptic responses for PVN-projecting NTS neurons were either all TRPV1+ or all TRPV1-, including neurons that received both direct and indirect inputs. Overall, PVN-projecting NTS neurons received direct and indirect vagal afferent information with strict segregation regarding TRPV1 expression.