Indirect Exchanges Research Articles

Insights into Pathogenesis of Trachoma.

Trachoma is the most common infectious cause of blindness worldwide. This review investigates the pathogenesis of trachoma, focusing on its causative agent, transmission pathways, disease progression, and immune responses. Trachoma is caused by serovars A-C of the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis (Ct). Transmission occurs through direct or indirect exchanges of ocular and nasal secretions, especially in regions with poor hygiene and overcrowded living conditions. The disease is initiated in early childhood by repeated infection of the ocular surface by Ct. This triggers recurrent chronic inflammatory episodes, leading to the development of conjunctival scarring and potentially to trichiasis, corneal opacity, and visual impairment. Exploring the pathogenesis of trachoma not only unveils the intricate pathways and mechanisms underlying this devastating eye disease but also underscores the multifaceted dimensions that must be considered in its management.

A two-pronged approach to understanding reciprocity and mental health relationship in developing countries: evidence from young informal construction workers in Nigeria

BackgroundMental health problems disproportionately affect young people in developing countries. However, there is limited research on help-seeking behaviours and the social support systems that improve mental wellbeing among vulnerable youth populations.ObjectiveThis mixed-methods study aimed to examine the relationship between social support reciprocity and mental health among young informal construction workers in Nigeria, a population at high-risk for occupational and socioeconomic stressors.MethodsA cross-sectional survey was administered to 686 informal workers to measure reciprocity, mental health-related quality of life, and covariates. In-depth interviews with 32 participants provided qualitative context.ResultsQuantitative analyses showed 25% of participants reported poor mental health. Reciprocity positively predicted mental health after controlling for covariates. Qualitative findings revealed reciprocity occurs directly between individuals as well as indirectly through trade unions and religious groups. Indirect exchanges through groups helped address limitations of direct support due to limited resources.ConclusionsThis study fills important gaps in understanding how social relationships impact mental health in developing country contexts. Findings emphasize the role of collective action and community-based support systems in promoting mental wellbeing among vulnerable populations. Insights can inform culturally relevant, systems-level mental health interventions.

Fugitive Philosophy

: The central inquiry of this article concerns the ethical orientation within post-structuralism, specifically questioning its potential affinity with deontology. While the “philosophers of difference” offer divergent perspectives on the doctrine of judgment, Jacques Derrida folds it within Deconstruction as a nomo-aporetic transcendental horizon. To understand this operation and its potential ethical significance, I suggest Jean-François Lyotard offers the best counter-model with which to compare against Derrida’s. Amongst their direct and indirect exchanges with each other is a dialogue concerning the law and its fundamental ground. Through their respective readings of Kafka – Derrida’s reading of “Before the Law” and Lyotard’s reading of “In the Penal Colony” – both attempt to delineate how the specific nature of the ground of the law determines the way in which an individual becomes subject to the law. Despite the enigmatic nature of their discourses, their comparison reveals converging and diverging trajectories in their ethical reflections as they push toward thinking the limits of lawfulness. Through such a comparative study of their texts, this exploration aims to unveil the shared fugitive vector of their ethical contemplations within the post-structuralist framework.

The maternal phylogenetic insights of Yunnan Miao group revealed by complete mitogenomes

The Miao group is one of the representative Hmong-Mien-speaking populations and primarily scattered in southern China and Southeast Asia, which has experienced massive migrations in history and thus forms distinctive evolutionary genetics. Yet, the genetic explorations of Miao group are relatively limited based on complete mitochondrial genome (mitogenome), especially for the Miao group from Yunnan Province (YNM). Here, we sequenced complete mitogenomes of 132 Miao individuals from Yunnan Province using massively parallel sequencing method. Total 132 Miao individuals could be allocated to 119 various haplotypes, which were mainly dominated by haplogroups prevalent in southern East Asia (B, F, M7 and R9), and rarely occupied by northern lineages (A, D, G and M8). In order to dissect the genetic background of YNM more comprehensively, we introduced 99 published population data with 7135 complete mitochondrial sequences for population genetic comparisons. YNM exhibited closer genetic relationships with Hmong-Mien, Tai-Kadai, Sino-Tibetan and Austroasiatic populations, especially for Hmong-Mien populations; we further speculated that Miao group might have certain direct or indirect gene exchanges with ancient Baiyue groups. Several maternal lineages, such as B5a1c1a, F1g1, B4a5 and D4e1a3, were found to be specifically shared by YNM and other Hmong-Mien populations, and these matrilineal expansions occurred roughly during the Neolithic period. Eventually, according to the population dynamic analyses of YNM, the population size began to emerge recovery ∼1–0.5 kya after a long-term population reduction ∼1–5 kya, during which the B5a1c1a haplogroup manifested relatively apparent lineage expansion.

Customer misbehavior and service providers’ risk perception in the sharing economy

Sharing economy (SE) service providers (e.g., home-sharing hosts) are regularly faced with customer misbehavior, either directly via their own experiences or indirectly via the experiences of other providers. In our study, we demonstrate that this increases providers’ perceived risk and, ultimately, their intention to quit sharing. Based on a comprehensive framework, we identify several boundary conditions for providers’ risk processing. We tested our model utilizing a sample of 1,312 owners of European holiday homes. Regarding sharing platforms’ management, our results offer insights for reducing provider turnover by selectively encouraging providers to share experiences with each other and by increasing service providers’ enjoyment in sharing. We performed an additional multigroup analysis to examine the role of providers’ places of residence, which reveals important differences. For example, it appears that risk-related information acquired in face-to-face interactions has a greater impact on perceived risk than information from indirect exchanges (e.g., online forums).

대외교류로 살펴본 해남반도 백포만 일대 마한사회 구조

Looking at the relics and distribution structures recently discovered in the area of Baekpo Bay on the Haenam Peninsula, this article attempts to approach the social structure of Mahan on the Haenam Peninsula at the time, focusing on the prestige products showing the symbols of local politics. In the past, the area of Baekpo Bay on the Haenam Peninsula has been recognized as a port of call for coastal routes through literature and excavation data since ancient times. Archaeological data showing that this area is a hub for foreign exchange in Northeast Asia continue to be confirmed, and based on abundant archaeological data, it seems to have served as a gateway to exchanges with China using sea routes formed from B.C. and the rise and fall of Mahan politics in Jeollanam-do. As such, the Haenam Peninsula, where Baekpo Bay is located, has formed a social structural system that can facilitate the distribution of symbolic artifacts such as luxury goods from an early age through various cultural contacts and various internal and external exchanges connected to both sides. The development of the system through various direct and indirect exchanges with the social distribution network served as the background for the international city to be located on the ancient maritime silk road in the Baekpo Bay area, and it was able to function as a society for entering the Korean Peninsula through the sea. In particular, the area of Baekpo Bay, where Hyeonsan-myeon is located, has been identified as the primary gateway to exchanges with China.
 Therefore, it was possible to form a social structural system related to internal and external exchanges and distribution from an early age and maintain its position as an intermediate port with Gaya and Japan for a considerable period of time. It is estimated that the establishment of such a system had political forces(chiefs) supported by strong economic power that could maintain their independent power.

金海 金官加耶 勢力의 鐵斧流通網 硏究

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the iron production and distribution network of Gimhae Geumgwan Gaya forces. The distribution network estimation path and change pattern were identified through the study of the network of the three iron types (plate, casting, forging) used as practical tools among the exca- vated iron parts in Gimhae, and it is divided into four stages. Stage I was from the late 1st century B.C. to the mid 2nd century A.D., and through exchanges with political groups in the Midwest and eastern Yeongnam, iron parts were processed and distributed through danya processes in small villages in Haebancheon Stream and Jomangang River.
 Stage II is in the late 2nd to late 3rd centuries, and Yeancheon Stream and Hwapocheon groups use the Sobaeksan Mountain transportation route to serve as trade routes between the midwest and the southeast of Yeongnam, and indirect exchanges between Gimhae and Honam forces are prevalent. Stage III is from the first half of the 4th century to the early 5th century, and a redistribution network is formed in the Haesa-ri area through smelting and refining processes → iron storage in the lower part of the Joman River, and the consumer group → Bonghwang earthen fortification. In the Ⅳ stage, Yeorae-ri steel base was established in the 5th centu- ry, a local market is formed around a charcoal kiln, merges with the Jomanogang River through Bonghwang earthen fortification. therefore, Geumgwan Gaya seems to have embraced the a Royal gift system through the distribution of powerful products such as steel technology and Jin gold belt based on a kind of long-distance trade for Hansung Baekje with trading Iron ax. In other words, it is transformed into an intermediate base for trade with the Nakdonggang River, Baekje, the eastern forces of Honam, and Japan by establishing and control- ling the solidarity and distribution network with small and medium-sized towns and villages through Cylinder bronzeware. In the 5th century, as the value of Iron ax declined and the function of Bonghwangtoseong Fortress as an intermediate point due to the supply and demand of the surrounding powers, foreign trade stagnated, but the local market distribution network consisting of consumption sites was maintained.

The Transfer of Soviet Prisoners of War from Afghanistan to Switzerland, 1982–1986

After the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, the Swiss government initially refused to become diplomatically involved, arguing that as a small, permanently neutral state, Switzerland was unable to make a difference in the Afghan crisis. The present article shows that between 1982 and 1986, the Swiss authorities began to identify the transfer of eleven Soviet prisoners of war from Afghanistan to Switzerland as an opportunity to demonstrate Switzerland's neutral good offices in situations of armed conflict. It also shows that Switzerland's involvement came about primarily through direct and indirect exchanges with non-state actors in the Afghan crisis.

Nonmarket Strategy Integration: How Corporate Social Responsibility Becomes a Political Strategy

Using social exchange theory, this paper explores how CSR is used as a political strategy. The findings reveal that when CSR is politicized, it involves the design and implementation of politically charged CSR initiatives that entail firm-polity negotiated exchanges. Firms exchange social interventions for political influence in ways that allow politicians take the credit to boost their re-election. To do this, the choice of target politician hinges on political vulnerability, the selection of CSR initiatives is based on CSR orientation and CSR benefit personalization, the location of CSR is linked to politicians’ electoral constituencies, and the timing of CSR is affected by election cycles. Overall, this paper provides new insights into how CSR is used in indirect social exchanges in political markets, shows that CSR can be CPA, and thus extends nonmarket strategy integration from its focus on CSR’s complementarity with CPA to its instrumentality in CPA. The findings have important theoretical and practical implications.

Killing Two Birds with One Stone in the Nonmarket Environment: The Orchestration of Corporate Social Responsibility as a Political Strategy

AbstractThis paper explores how corporate social responsibility (CSR) is used as a political strategy. Drawing on social exchange theory and using data from firms operating in Ghana, the findings reveal that when CSR is politicized, it involves the design and implementation of politically charged CSR initiatives that entail firm–polity negotiated exchanges. Firms exchange social interventions for political influence in ways that allow politicians to take the credit to boost their re‐election. To do this, the choice of target politician hinges on political vulnerability, the selection of CSR initiatives is based on CSR orientation and CSR benefit personalization, the location of CSR is linked to politicians’ electoral constituencies and the timing of CSR is affected by election cycles. Overall, this paper provides new insights into how CSR is used in indirect social exchanges in political markets, shows that CSR can be CPA and thus extends nonmarket strategy integration from its focus on CSR's complementarity with CPA to its instrumentality in CPA. The findings have important theoretical and practical implications.

The Metabolist Imagination: Visions of the City in Postwar Japanese Architecture and Science Fiction by William O. Gardner

Reviewed by: The Metabolist Imagination: Visions of the City in Postwar Japanese Architecture and Science Fiction by William O. Gardner Franz Prichard The Metabolist Imagination: Visions of the City in Postwar Japanese Architecture and Science Fiction by William O. Gardner. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2020. Pp. viii + 223. $108.00 cloth, $27.00 paper. This comparative study explores how selected Japanese architects and writers imagined, represented, or visualized the city. Describing in vivid detail their shared investments in what Gardner usefully terms the narrative "elements" of the city, this book offers a captivating mapping of two deeply entangled domains where Japan's urban imaginaries took on new contours during the decades of the 1960s and 1970s. Deftly attending to the speculative dimensions of both literary and architectural discourses of the city, Gardner's book opens new interdisciplinary entryways to Japan's vocabularies of urban environments and planetary urbanization, analyzing the role of speculative futures therein. This volume complements a growing body of scholarship that explores the architectural and visual-cultural histories of the Japanese Metabolist movement, known for its visionary attention to urban design processes that proponents likened to organic processes. This scholarship examines the impact of the Metabolist movement on Japan's architectural and design history.1 It also includes studies of individual Metabolist architects, such as Isozaki Arata 磯崎新 (b. 1931), [End Page 165] Tange Kenzō 丹下健三 (1913–2005), Kikutake Kiyonori 菊竹清訓 (1928–2011), and Kurokawa Kishō 黒川紀章 (1934–2007), as well as studies of the Metabolist movement's central role in the 1970 Osaka World's Fair, Expo '70.2 Moreover, the book makes a significant contribution to interdisciplinary scholarship on the history and contemporary afterlives of the urban transformations of Japan's discursive and built environments more broadly during the 1960s and 1970s.3 Gardner's primary focus is not the Metabolists' iconic architectural designs and large-scale regional redevelopment plans. (The book does include a number of well-chosen color illustrations and photographs of Metabolist works, for which the press should be applauded.) Rather, he focuses on an evocative survey of central Metabolist keywords, such as "process," "megastructure," "capsule," and "ruins." Gardner's aim is not merely an intellectual history of Metabolist thought. The book dynamically sifts through Metabolist vocabularies to explore the intersecting narrative dimensions of what Gardner calls "imaginative simulation" (p. 1) undertaken by both architects and science-fiction writers to reimagine Japan's built environments and social conditions. The representative central figures of this study are architect Isozaki Arata (whose early writings bleed into speculative fiction territory) and celebrated science-fiction author Komatsu Sakyō 小松左京 (1931–2011) (who participated directly in the planning of Expo '70). Bringing such figures into critical dialogue, the book traces the direct and indirect exchanges among their narrative imaginaries of the city, as well as the formative role these exchanges played in developing the discourses of information society, cybernetics, systems theory, futurology, and planetary catastrophe in Japan. Gardner's lucid inventory of the complex entanglements during this pivotal historical period thus makes significant contributions to an interdisciplinary understanding of Japanese architectural and literary visions of the future city (mirai toshi 未来都市). While the chapters proceed in a linear fashion temporally from the [End Page 166] early 1960s to roughly the early 2000s, the resultant survey of narrative and imaginative figurations of the city is decidedly nonlinear. Capturing the connective threads of discursive exchanges among discontinuous media and moments, Gardner's meticulous focus on the narrative effects and changing imaginaries of the future city weaves together a nuanced collection of recurrent motifs and circular eddies across the chapters of the book. Chapter 1 situates the emergence of Metabolist architects' diverse process-oriented visions within a shared interest in the city's continuous metamorphosis, likened to the metabolic processes of living organisms. Gardner contends that "by stressing the processes of becoming, transforming, and even disintegrating, the Metabolists introduced a narrative element into their architectural theory" (p. 43). He offers a highly compelling reading of the literary forms that Metabolist thinkers Kawazoe Noboru and Isozaki Arata, as well as non-Metabolist Itō Toyō 伊東豊雄 (b. 1941), deployed to articulate their speculative architectural visions. Chapter 2 deepens this understanding of the role of narrative form through the...

All for one and one for all: Encouraging ecosystem citizenship behaviour to strengthen employer branding

This research investigates how employer branding can be strengthened by taking a business ecosystem approach that encourages and leverages indirect social exchanges, such as the behaviour of paying it forward. This work is founded on extant literature and exploratory interviews with individuals from firms seeking to strengthen their employer brand by interdependently operating in a business ecosystem. A model is developed that proposes how indirect social exchanges can occur in an ecosystem, and what types of outcomes it can lead to for the individuals, firms and the ecosystem as a whole. As far as can be ascertained, this is the first study that combines these perspectives. The work suggests that there is value for firms in taking an ecosystem-focused approach to employer branding. The findings highlight that indirect or generalized social exchanges can provide value for individual firms when they form a group of interdependent collaborators rather than simply being competitors. Further, this work adds to the literature related to employee and partner extra-role behaviour by proposing the perspective of an Ecosystem Citizenship Behaviour. Ecosystem Citizenship Behaviour is an extra-role behaviour that occurs in the business ecosystem and as such can be beneficial for joint employer branding initiatives of participating firms.

Re-visiting the ‘black box’ of migration: state-intermediary co-production of regulatory spaces of labour migration

ABSTRACT It is now widely held that a variety of intermediary actors, including recruitment and staffing agencies, multinational corporations and local brokers, shape labour migration. This paper argues that in order to better understand the global circulation of labour it is necessary to explore the involvement of these actors in the production of the regulatory spaces through which migrant labour is brokered. Indeed, migration intermediaries do not only navigate borders on behalf of their migrant clients. Nor is ‘the state’ primarily a backdrop against which the understanding of the role of intermediaries may be developed. Instead, we argue, regulatory spaces of labour migration are made and remade through direct and indirect exchanges and interactions between intermediaries and state actors. Through an analysis of three moments of regulatory change in Sweden, the paper shows that such interaction does not take place in an even landscape but, rather, that the ability of migration intermediaries to influence the regulation of migration lies in the capacity to form close relationships or establish a powerful presence. A focus on the dynamic co-production of regulatory spaces by intermediaries and state actors, in our view, offers a more nuanced account of how labour migration currently is brokered and regulated.

Practicable total-site heat integration plan for retrofitting multiple heat exchanger networks

Total-site heat integration (TSHI) is one of effective ways to improve energy efficiency for the process industry. Generally, the existing chemical plants in an industrial park were rarely constructed simultaneously and it is highly possible that each has already been equipped with an optimal heat exchanger network (HEN) at the time when its construction is completed. To further improve the overall performance of the entire site, a novel retrofit design strategy of these HENs is developed in this study using intermediate fluid(s). A two-stage procedure has been adopted to produce a practicable retrofitting plan. Three different revamp strategies are proposed in this work, while any of them can be applied to generate the cost-optimal designs first via indirect interplant heat exchanges. The benefit allocation schemes are then determined according to core and Shapley values in the second stage. The feasibility and effectiveness of proposed methodology are demonstrated in detail with a three-plant example. It is also plain to observe from the corresponding results that the applicability of the aforementioned design strategy is practicable in realistic environment.

PEMILIHAN KEPALA DESA DALAM PERSPEKTIF PERTUKARAN SOSIAL (STUDI KASUS PADA PEMILIHAN KEPALA DESA SUMBERARUM 2019 KECAMATAN KEREK KABUPATEN TUBAN)

The election of village heads (pilkades) is one of the manifestations of democracy in the village. Pilkades allows every eligible villager to have the right to choose who will lead their village. In practice, the 2019 Pilkades in Sumberarum cannot be separated from various forms of social exchange. The social exchange in question is the exchange between the candidate for the village head and the voters. The aims of this study were (1) to identify the type of social exchange in the Pilkades, (2) to find the elements of social exchange in the Pilkades, (2) to identify the arena of social exchange in the Pilkades, and (3) to identify patterns of social exchange in the Pilkades. This study uses a qualitative approach with case study research methods. The results showed that the social exchange between the candidate for the village head and the voters used the arena of mlawang, jajang, mayoran and dispatch. The types of exchange that occurred included direct exchanges and indirect exchanges. Indirect social exchange, involving botoh, elder figures, village officials and heads of community organizations. In the process of social exchange, it is unavoidable that there is an element of power. The power of the village head candidate comes from material resources, while the power of the voter comes from the ‘vote’ owned by the voters. It is this difference in sources of power that requires both parties to negotiate. This is what causes symmetrical and asymmetrical exchange patterns. The general norm that applies is that voters determine their choice and support for the village head candidate who is considered to provide the most material and non-material rewards.Keywords: power, social exchange, pilkades, exchange pattern, exchange type.

Syntrophic Hydrocarbon Degradation in a Decommissioned Off-Shore Subsea Oil Storage Structure.

Over the last decade, metagenomic studies have revealed the impact of oil production on the microbial ecology of petroleum reservoirs. However, despite their fundamental roles in bioremediation of hydrocarbons, biocorrosion, biofouling and hydrogen sulfide production, oil field and oil production infrastructure microbiomes are poorly explored. Understanding of microbial activities within oil production facilities is therefore crucial for environmental risk mitigation, most notably during decommissioning. The analysis of the planktonic microbial community from the aqueous phase of a subsea oil-storage structure was conducted. This concrete structure was part of the production platform of the Brent oil field (North Sea), which is currently undergoing decommissioning. Quantification and sequencing of microbial 16S rRNA genes, metagenomic analysis and reconstruction of metagenome assembled genomes (MAGs) revealed a unique microbiome, strongly dominated by organisms related to Dethiosulfatibacter and Cloacimonadetes. Consistent with the hydrocarbon content in the aqueous phase of the structure, a strong potential for degradation of low molecular weight aromatic hydrocarbons was apparent in the microbial community. These degradation pathways were associated with taxonomically diverse microorganisms, including the predominant Dethiosulfatibacter and Cloacimonadetes lineages, expanding the list of potential hydrocarbon degraders. Genes associated with direct and indirect interspecies exchanges (multiheme type-C cytochromes, hydrogenases and formate/acetate metabolism) were widespread in the community, suggesting potential syntrophic hydrocarbon degradation processes in the system. Our results illustrate the importance of genomic data for informing decommissioning strategies in marine environments and reveal that hydrocarbon-degrading community composition and metabolisms in man-made marine structures might differ markedly from natural hydrocarbon-rich marine environments.

A holistic measure of contextual and individual linguistic diversity

ABSTRACT The sociolinguistic context of language use contributes to individuals’ linguistic knowledge. However, how it does so has yet to be fully conceptualised or quantitatively investigated within the language sciences. To meet this goal, a psychometrically sound evidence-based measure that captures important aspects of contextually influenced linguistic experience is necessary. In this paper we describe the development and validation of the Contextual and Individual Linguistic Diversity Questionnaire (CILD-Q). Exploratory factor analysis was conducted with data from 353 participants (62.9% South African, 37.1% UK, Mage = 29.3, SD = 10.09). A three-factor solution best describes the structure of the CILD-Q: Multilingualism in Context (contextual use and societal practice of multiple languages within a community), Multilingualism in Practice (direct and indirect linguistic exchanges and conversational interaction), Linguistic Diversity Promotion (societal and governmental endorsement of linguistic variation). Item scores corresponding to these three factors showed sufficient reliability (α’s > 0.80). The CILD-Q provides a novel and holistic manner to measure sociolinguistic diversity and can be used when measuring individuals’ language experience within and across populations from differing sociolinguistic contexts.

Minestrone Stories

Serendipity should not be restricted to cutting-edge science and research alone. A proactive approach to the unexpected can also strengthen classes in anthropology and the humanities. But how can you teach if classes are influenced by accidental arrangements and discoveries not sought or considered? I shall tap into two projects of teaching-by-serendipity through indirect cultural exchanges. The two projects in question were named Minestrone Stories, referring to the Italian minestrone soup, usually made of the vegetables available and thereby providing each village in Italy with its own variant. However, the two ‘Minestrone soups’ in question included more ingredients. The teaching-by-serendipity projects targeted what students, teachers and citizens in confined areas of Copenhagen had available, inciting them to indirectly exchange vegetables, songs, services and stories with each other, thus stirring them together. In this article, I reflect on how this stirring provoked an unusual teaching experience and moments of unexpected learning.

Da lógica ao lucro: uma reflexão sobre a aplicabilidade da lógica dominada por serviço ao ramo hoteleiro

A Lógica Dominada por Serviço (LDS) obteve importância na ciência de marketing por oferecer uma perspectiva alternativa para a compreensão das trocas sociais e econômicas. Para tanto, o estudo dos sistemas econômicos é redirecionado de um foco centrado tão somente na materialidade do produto para outra lógica, pós-materialista, em que os recursos operantes são essenciais e o serviço é trocado por serviço. Este ensaio científico pretende elucidar, mediante uma reflexão, os principais pontos levantados na LDS, considerando es- pecialmente o conceito de ecossistema de serviço, e avaliando/propondo a aplicação dos conceitos da LDS ao ramo de hotelaria. Uma das proposições da LDS aplicáveis às empresas hoteleiras diz respeito à cocriação de valor, em que hóspedes são tratados como cocriadores. A cocriação de valor resulta da integração de recursos de múltiplos atores em suas interações, tanto nas trocas diretas quanto indiretas.

Drawing the Boundaries Between Hub-and-Spoke Cartels and Vertical Agreements: Lessons from the United Kingdom and the United States to Chilean Competition Law

Indirect contacts or exchanges of information between competitors through a common third party can sometimes lead to the existence of a cumulus of vertical agreements and, sometimes, can imply the configuration of a horizontal agreement. In competition law, vertical and horizontal agreements are treated in very different ways. Therefore, establishing whether a set of facts amounts to one or the other is critical. After analysing the situation in the United Kingdom and in the United States, this presentation will explain why the limit between the hub-and-spoke (horizontal) conspiracies and a mere aggregation of vertical agreements lies in the existence not only of vertical information exchanges (or, to phrase it differently, in an indirect horizontal exchange) but also in the established existence of an additional mental element. Towards the end, relevant conclusions will be reached in relation to the application of the Chilean Competition Act.