Indigo Fermentation Research Articles

Draft genome sequence of Pseudomonas sp. strain G5, isolated from a traditional indigo fermentation dye vat

In previous study, alkaliphilic and thermotolerant bacterium strain, Pseudomonas sp. strain G5, capable of reducing insoluble indigo was isolated from Korean traditional fermentation liquor. Here, we report the draft genome sequence and annotation of strain G5 to provide the genomic information involved in indigo reduction process.

Bacterial community characterization and dynamics of indigo fermentation

Indigo fermentation has been traditionally performed for dyeing textiles in Japan. Limited information is available on the microbiota involved and the succession of the bacterial community structure during indigo reduction. We investigated the bacterial community structure associated with indigo fermentation using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis and clone library analyses of a PCR-amplified 16S rRNA gene in the early phase of fermentation carried out in our laboratory. A marked substitution of Halomonas spp. by Amphibacillus spp. was observed corresponding to the marked change in the state of indigo reduction. Although the reported indigo-reducing bacteria, Alkalibacterium spp., were not predominant in the early phase of fermentation, they were predominant in fermentation liquor aged for 10 months obtained from Date City, Japan, as determined by culture-dependent and culture-independent analyses. Novel indigo-reducing strains, Amphibacillus spp. strain C40 and Oceanobacillus spp. strain A21, were isolated from fermentation liquor aged for 10 months and from liquor aged for 4 days, respectively. It is considered that, in addition to the strains belonging to the genus Alkalibacterium, strains belonging to genera Amphibacillus and Oceanobacillus play important roles in sustaining the reduced state of indigo during fermentation.

Alkalibacterium indicireducens sp. nov., an obligate alkaliphile that reduces indigo dye

Indigo-reducing, obligately alkaliphilic strains A11T, F11 and F12 were isolated from indigo fermentation liquor obtained from Tokushima Prefecture, Shikoku, Japan. The isolates grew at pH 9.0-12.3, but not at pH 7.0-8.0. The optimum pH range for growth was 9.5-11.5. They were Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped strains with peritrichous flagella. The isolates grew in 0-14 % (w/v) NaCl, with optimum growth at 1-11 %. They grew at temperatures of 15-35 degrees C with optimum growth at around 20-30 degrees C. dl-Lactate was the major end product from d-glucose. No quinones were detected. The peptidoglycan type was A4 alpha, l-Lys (l-Orn)-d-Asp. The major cellular fatty acids were C16 : 0, C16 : 17c and C18 : 19c. The DNA G+C contents were 47.0-47.8 mol%. Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequence data indicated that the isolates belong to the genus Alkalibacterium. DNA-DNA hybridization revealed low relatedness values between the isolates and the three phylogenetically most closely related species, Alkalibacterium olivapovliticus, Alkalibacterium psychrotolerans and Alkalibacterium iburiense (<41 %). On the basis of phenotypic characteristics, including hydrolysis of cellulose and fermentation of carbohydrates, and chemotaxonomic characteristics, phylogenetic data and DNA-DNA relatedness data, it is concluded that the isolates merit classification as representatives of a novel species of the genus Alkalibacterium, for which the name Alkalibacterium indicireducens sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain of this species is A11T (=JCM 14232T=NCIMB 14253T).

The English Contribution to the Early History of Indigo Printing

An examination has been made of the early uses of the tepid indigo fermentation vat and its consequent use with resist techniques, culminating in the use of metal blocks for the printing of the wax resist. A description is given of the important English contributions to the early history of indigo printing, firstly by the use of “pencilling”, and secondly by the “china‐blue” technique of direct printing with indigo.