Indigenous Mobilization Research Articles

From transnational to trans-Indigenous: a critical analysis of the role of categorization and everyday coloniality in Indigenous mobilities

ABSTRACT Addressing the special issue’s focus on the contestation of state categories, this article investigates the categorization of Indigenous Peoples on the move and how they resist and re-exist these categorizations. Rooted in decolonial approaches from Latin America, we propose a trans-Indigenous conceptual framework for the analysis of such mobilities. Based on 15 semi-structured interviews with Indigenous people on the move conducted in the State of Roraima in Brazil and supplemented by an examination of relevant policy documents in the region, our arguments are built around the perspectives of Indigenous people on the move and their resistance. In outlining the contours of a trans-Indigenous conceptual framework, this article’s primary contributions lie in contextualizing Indigenous mobilities within a decolonial critique of the modern-colonial nation-state and human rights in Latin America that may lead toward an independent praxis related to territory, sovereignty, and mobilities.

Cabecitas Blancas: settler colonialism, racial capitalism and the (im)mobility of borders for Yucatecan migrant families

In this paper, I analyse the intersection of settler colonialism, racial capitalism and border violence by examining Cabecitas Blancas a project run by the Yucatecan government to reunite families divided by the US-Mexican border. A unique program in Mexico, Cabecitas Blancas helps elders who have not seen their children living in the United States for at least 10 years, due to their children’s precarious immigration status, reunite for a short period of time. I have developed the term tramitología to show the way the settler colonial state monitors and restrict Indigenous mobility by designating who is “worthy” of government support. I demonstrate how the flow of mostly Maya elders via Cabecitas Blancas between borders is facilitated only because they become state commodities that sustain racial capitalism via tourism and multicultural policies. Ultimately, I argue that reform programs such as Cabecitas Blancas enable and (re)produce exploitation, settler colonialism and border violence. This paper draws on semi-structured interviews with government officials as well as YouTube videos and online news articles depicting different stages of the program.

Decoy politics: How settler states deflect Indigenous threats

Anglo settler states like Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States were built through the dispossession of Indigenous lands and through the disruption of Indigenous political, social and economic systems. Over time, however, Indigenous nations have challenged the unjust foundations of these states, forcing settler states to respond with repression but also with accommodation, especially in the face of successful Indigenous mobilization. Yet even during these moments, state actors have resisted changes to state sovereignty, sometimes by creating new institutions that seem responsive, but which simply reinforce the status quo. To make sense of these moments, we introduce the concept of “decoy politics” and develop a theory for why states might turn to decoy politics, with a particular focus on Canada. Our findings suggest decoy politics may help explain why reconciliation with Indigenous nations remains difficult despite seemingly genuine attempts at meaningful institutional and policy change.

Honoring Inágofli’e’ and Alofa: Developing a Culturally Grounded Health Promotion Model for Queer and Transgender Pacific Islanders

(1) Background: Although culturally grounded health interventions (CGHI) have shown efficacy in improving Indigenous health, few CGHI for Queer and Transgender Pacific Islander (QTPI) communities exist to address their health promotion. This study explores QTPI experiences of health for cultural mechanisms to develop CGHI for QTPI health promotion. (2) Methods: Using Indigenist community-engaged research methodologies, we collaborated with the United Territories of Pacific Islanders Alliance of Washington and Guma’ Gela’ to conduct 11 exploratory semi-structured interviews with QTPI community members living in the Puget Sound area of Washington state. These interviews were analyzed using thematic analysis. (3) Results: QTPI well-being was greatly influenced by how settler colonialism impacted their connectedness to their families, communities, and cultures. We also found that inágofli’e’ and alofa, relational values in CHamoru and Sāmoan culture, played essential roles in facilitating QTPI health. Many participants fostered these values through chosen family, community care, and Indigenous mobilities. (4) Conclusions: Our findings indicate a need for CGHI that facilitate inágofli’e’ and alofa for QTPI to combat settler colonialism’s impacts on QTPI well-being. Finally, we present a community-centered conceptual model for culturally grounded health promotion in QTPI communities.

Modern American Indians in (and beyond) the Deutsche Reich: (Re)Claiming Indigenous lands, nations, and futures through transatlantic Indigenous travel

ABSTRACT In 1850, Ojibwe writer and lecturer Gaagigegaabaw (George Copway) traveled through Europe en route to attend the Third World Peace Congress in Frankfurt, Germany, to represent the so-called Christian Indians of America. Gaagigegaabaw was but one of hundreds of nineteenth – and early twentieth-century Indigenous transatlantic travelers. Building upon recent scholarship in Indigenous modernism/modernity and transnational Indigenous studies, this essay engages the literal and literary movements of Indigenous travelers beyond the colonial powers of England, France, and Spain, as Indigenous North Americans continued their travels into German-speaking Europe. By returning to the nineteenth – and early twentieth-century writings of and about such transatlantic Indigenous travelers as Gaagigegaabaw, Heȟáka Sápa (Black Elk), and Deskaheh (Levi General), this essay expands the ever-growing literary map of transatlantic Indigenous modernity as an era of extensive Indigenous mobility and of Indigenous modernism as a diverse range of adaptive aesthetics grounded in the continuation of land-based Indigenous nationhood.

Indigenous mobilization and territorial ordering in the Amazon

The paper examines the creation of the district of Megantoni, home to vast reserves of natural gas currently exploited by the Camisea project, as an example of recent territorial ordering in Peru. We focus on the political conditions that enable communities to renegotiate potential advantages from existing extractive projects. We emphasize the politicization of collective identities as central for advancing the claims of diverse ethnic groups, while drawing attention to the conflation of contextual factors that made the mobilization of Indigenous communities for the creation of their own district more likely. These factors are related to Camisea's sustainable energy discourse, domestic security threats linked to political violence and drug-trafficking, and a political discourse based on social inclusion. The paper demonstrates the varied uses of territorial ordering outside resistance in the context of resource extraction. It also shows that Indigenous identity can be politicized for cooperation among diverse ethnic groups, and in this way, advance their territorial project and secure access to benefits from existing projects.

Strength from the Waters. A History of Indigenous Mobilization in Northwest Mexico. By James V. Mestaz The Three Deaths of Cerro de San Pedro. Four Centuries of Extractivism in a Small Mexican Mining Town. By Daviken Studnicki-Gizbert

<i>Strength from the Waters. A History of Indigenous Mobilization in Northwest Mexico</i>. By James V. Mestaz <i>The Three Deaths of Cerro de San Pedro. Four Centuries of Extractivism in a Small Mexican Mining Town</i>. By Daviken Studnicki-Gizbert

At the Crossroads: Introducing New Work in Early America and Colonial Latin America

At the Crossroads: Introducing New Work in Early America and Colonial Latin America

Ripples from a single stone: Indigenous mobilization for community tenure-led conservation in Cameroon

AbstractWe document a process initiated by Indigenous Peoples in Cameroon that seeks to open a dialogue with key conservation actors to work towards community-led, rights-based alternatives to so-called fortress conservation. In June 2021, Gbabandi, a platform of forest Indigenous Peoples, invited key conservation actors to a 1-day listening event. This represented an important precedent, reversing the usual approach to dialogue in which Indigenous Peoples are invited to participate at various levels in externally directed processes. In this case the space for engagement was opened by Indigenous Peoples on their own terms based on Indigenous ways of organizing, and conservation organizations were invited to participate. Indigenous Peoples gave testimonies of physical violence and abuse in various protected areas across Cameroon. Conservation actors acknowledged there had been violations of human rights and there was substantial discussion about threats to wildlife and the need for more inclusive approaches to conservation, redevelopment of management plans and renegotiation of access for Indigenous communities based on community consent. The long-term impact remains to be seen but the immediate effect of an Indigenous-led process was that key decision makers in conservation in Cameroon heard directly from the people affected by their decisions and, since the event, have been more active than previously in contacting and consulting Indigenous Peoples about how protected areas are managed. Gbabandi is hopeful that this type of initiative will change the dialogue between communities and protected area managers and will lead to real changes in conservation practice.

Extraction, Assimilation, and Accommodation: The Historical Foundations of Indigenous–State Relations in Latin America

Why do some Indigenous communities experience assimilation while others obtain government protection for their long-standing institutions and cultures? I argue that historical experiences with state-led labor conscription play a key role. In the early twentieth century, Latin American governments conscripted unpaid Indigenous labor to build infrastructure. Community leaders threatened by this conscription were more likely to mobilize their communities to resist it. The mobilization of this collective action later empowered community leaders to achieve state protections for Indigenous institutions and cultures, or “accommodation.” I test this argument using a natural experiment where communities’ eligibility for labor conscription to build a 1920s Peruvian highway was as-if randomly assigned. I develop a measure of accommodation that considers both the existence and enforcement of laws protecting Indigenous institutions and cultures. I evaluate the mechanisms using data on Indigenous mobilization. The findings demonstrate how historical extraction shaped contemporary Indigenous–state relations.

Mexico's Regional Environmental History - Strength from the Waters: A History of Indigenous Mobilization in Northwest Mexico. By James V. Mestaz. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2022. Pp. 316. Four photographs, 9 maps, glossary, index. $99.00 cloth; $33.00 paper; $30.00 e-book.

Mexico's Regional Environmental History - Strength from the Waters: A History of Indigenous Mobilization in Northwest Mexico. By James V. Mestaz. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2022. Pp. 316. Four photographs, 9 maps, glossary, index. $30.00 e-book. - Volume 80 Issue 2

Introduction: Mesoamerican Indigenous Mobilities in Mexico and the United States

Introduction: Mesoamerican Indigenous Mobilities in Mexico and the United States

Indigenous companion planting in the great churn: Three sisters in Kalapuya ilihi

This article addresses place, culture, community, and mobility in relation to Indigenous food sovereignty and TEK (traditional ecological knowledge). We start with a reflection on what it means to live in the Pacific Northwest of the United States for people from tribes that use Three Sisters agriculture. Two of the authors grew corn, beans, and squash using wintertime, indoor hydroponics and other methods in a performance art mode in Kalapuya ilihi (Western Oregon, USA). Growing these sacred companion plants out of soil, out of sun, out of season, and out of place served as a meditation on our own senses of dislocation and disjuncture as well as modes of connection as Southeastern Natives living in the Pacific Northwest. The politics and practice of growing and/or tending traditional Indigenous food plants in both traditional and non-traditional ways and places provided new language for understanding Indigenous cultural and social health in relation to Indigenous traditions, mobility, and relationality. The three authors (two from Southeastern tribes, one from a Northwestern tribe) provide a model for collaborative intercultural Indigenous ecological projects as a mode of learning, a mode of relational Indigenous mobility, a mode of community-building, and a mode of engaging in Indigenous food sovereignty. Working on community and educational projects together helped us understand companion planting as an analogy, an aesthetic, a method, and a mode for building relational futures.

Indigenous Textual Cultures: Reading and Writing in the Age of Global Empire ed. by Tony Ballantyne, Lachy Paterson, and Angela Wanhalla (review)

Reviewed by: Indigenous Textual Cultures: Reading and Writing in the Age of Global Empire ed. by Tony Ballantyne, Lachy Paterson, and Angela Wanhalla Savannah Esquivel (bio) Indigenous Textual Cultures: Reading and Writing in the Age of Global Empire edited by Tony Ballantyne, Lachy Paterson, and Angela Wanhalla Duke University Press, 2020 INDIGENOUS TEXTUAL CULTURES examines literacy practices and communication technologies in Indigenous societies impacted in particular by British and French intrusion in the nineteenth through twenty-first centuries. Literacy has often been examined from the point of view of imperial agents or anti-colonial leaders. Indigenous Textual Cultures shifts focus by highlighting the potency of orality and auditory practices. It contends Indigenous societies used alphabetic literacy to intervene in emergent transregional communication networks, often sustaining Indigenous knowledge practices through a "symbiotic relationship" between literacy and orality (149). A range of studies examines how Indigenous textual literacy exposed contradictions within colonial matrices of power, undermined the authority of the written or printed word, and compelled colonial agents to rethink material and discursive contours of mass literacy campaigns. The volume delivers a nuanced picture of how Indigenous mobilizations of literacy created new intellectual forums in an increasingly interconnected world. Indigenous Textual Cultures presents a range of approaches for uplifting the writing and reading practices of Indigenous societies from models that place literacy and orality in opposition. On the one hand, contributors deftly engage canonical debates about literacy and orality to establish a framework for delinking settler-colonial perspectives and historiographical antecedents from analyses of writing and reading in Indigenous communities. By showing that Western notions of literacy do not align with the Indigenous knowledge traditions inscribed on paper or recorded on cassette tapes, the authors in this collection underline the necessity for new interpretative approaches that address the push-pull dynamics of literacy and incorporate the perspective of Indigenous writers, readers, and listeners. On the other hand, the volume's meticulous examination of the sonic contours of a range of "texts" in imperial and ancestral languages—from grief chants to pidgin-language newspapers, didactic narratives to radio broadcasts—opens up new avenues for analysis of the performative and imaginative [End Page 195] dimensions of Indigenous literacy practices. Indeed, examining Indigenous writing through the lens of the "durability of orality" (196) reminds us that colonial impositions could serve as potent vehicles for expressing Indigenous priorities. Organized thematically into four parts, Indigenous Textual Cultures intersects with recent work on textual media and communication systems often engaged on a hemispheric level. The volume's twelve chapters and introduction focus on southern Africa, Australia, North America, and the Pacific Islands. Notably, the collection enfolds scholarship on imperial and vernacular literacies in Africa, initiating a conversation that transcends disciplinary and geopolitical boundaries. The first part, "Archives & Debates," engages the underutilized archive of Indigenous-language sources in the Pacific. Studies demonstrate Indigenous societies actively participated in writing and used textual practices and technologies for the intergenerational exchange of knowledge embedded in oral culture. In particular, Lachy Paterson stresses the "interplay of oral and textual forms" (92) when documents were read out loud as a reminder that nonwriters were nevertheless active participants in literacy culture. The second part, "Orality and Texts," examines how Indigenous communities maintained a "primacy of orality" (136) alongside new communicative practices, technologies, and skills. The introduction of writing fostered auditory practices that bolster Indigenous historical memories and oral recitation structures. The third part, "Readers," focuses on the creation of new publics, notably centering societies for whom colonization and the introductions of writing and reading is a living memory. Here, studies of literacy transmission reveal Indigenous peoples engaged with newspapers in vernacular and imperial languages, Christian radio broadcasts, and missives in unexpected ways, compelling missionaries and bureaucrats to reformulate strategies to accommodate the preferences of new Indigenous publics. The fourth and final part, "Writers," considers how Indigenous literacy intervenes in colonial textual regimes that erase and rework Indigenous texts. By examining how Indigenous writers take a "portfolio approach to authorship" (247), the authors posit an expansive notion of literacy to encompass the dynamic social relations embedded in the practices Indigenous writers mobilized when writing for their own communities. The most compelling chapters in Indigenous Textual Cultures...

Mobility patterns and COVID growth: Moderating role of country culture

The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in countries reacting differently to an ongoing crisis situation. Latent to this reaction mechanism is the inherent cultural characteristics of each society resulting in differential responses to epidemic spread. Epidemiological studies have confirmed the positive effect of population mobility on the growth of infection. However, the effect of culture on indigenous mobility patterns during pandemics needs further investigation. This study aims to bridge this gap by exploring the moderating role of country culture on the relationship between population mobility and growth of CoVID-19. Hofstede’s cultural factors; power distance, individualism/collectivism, masculinity/femininity, uncertainty avoidance, long-term and short-term orientation are hypothesised to moderate the effect of mobility on the reproduction number (R) of COVID-19. Panel regression model, using mobility data and number of confirmed cases across 95 countries for a period of 170 days has been preferred to test the hypotheses. The results are further substantiated using slope analysis and Johnson-Neyman technique. The findings suggest that as power distance, individualism and long-term orientation scores increase, the impact of mobility on epidemic growth decreases. However, masculinity scores in a society have an opposite moderating impact on epidemic growth rate. These Hofstede factors act as quasi moderators affecting mobility and epidemic growth. Similar conclusions could be not be confirmed for uncertainty avoidance. Cross-cultural impact, as elucidated by this study, forms a crucial element in policy formulation on epidemic control by indigenous Governing bodies.

The Pass System in Practice: Restricting Indigenous Mobility in the Canadian Northwest, 1885–1915

AbstractThis article is an examination of the impact of the pass system on First Nations people from the Treaty 4 District of Western Canada. The pass system, which was implemented by the Department of Indian Affairs (DIA) in 1885, was a system of administrative control that required many treaty people to obtain the permission of DIA staff before traveling off-reserve. The article is inspired by Alex Williams’s recent documentary The Pass System, which draws on the testimony of Indigenous elders while challenging accepted wisdom about both the impacts of the pass system and the length of its implementation. Through the examination of four case studies, the article shows how the pass system was applied indiscriminately, disrupting not only the free movement of First Nations people but also their governance structures. Finally, the article suggests that many Treaty Four people may have acquiesced to the pass system for the most part but resisted most vociferously in the context of the DIA’s attempt to curtail Nehiyaw ceremonies.

Racial Alterity, Wixarika Youth Activism, and the Right to the Mexican City by Diana Negrín

Reviewed by: Racial Alterity, Wixarika Youth Activism, and the Right to the Mexican City by Diana Negrín Luis Urrieta (bio) and Judith Landeros (bio) Racial Alterity, Wixarika Youth Activism, and the Right to the Mexican City by Diana Negrín University of Arizona Press, 2019 IN RACIAL ALTERITY, WIXARIK A YOUTH ACTIVISM, and the Right to the Mexican City, Diana Negrín powerfully transcends the racial stereotypes that confine Indigenous people to the past, to specific notions of authenticity, or to particular landscapes, namely rural areas. Centering the lives of Wixarika youth activists, she richly illustrates how Wixaritari urban youth in the Mexican cities of Guadalajara and Tepic contest and negotiate in multiple ways the stereotypes of Indigenous peoples, ascribed notions of cultural authenticity, racial alterity, and spatial belonging (6). Negrín troubles historically paternalistic and essentialized indigenista racial imaginaries tied to narrow notions of indigeneity and the politics of authenticity by spatially grounding her work in conversation within urban studies, critical race studies, and critical Indigenous studies. Negrín begins by foregrounding indigenismo as the state ideology that at different historical moments has framed the Mexican nation's racial imaginary and tried to contain its racial alterity by addressing Indigenous peoples as a "problem." She particularly situates how indigenismo frames Indigenous peoples in deficit ways, as culturally and geographically homogeneous, belonging to specific places, and limited to a physical and temporal space (25, 39, 49). Continuing her analysis of indigenismo, in chapter 2 she examines Instituto Nacional Indigenista (INI) "development" programs that emerged from acción indigenista national projects to solve the "Indian problem" in Mexico. Specifically, in Wixarika territory (53) starting in the 1960s, such projects caused displacement and migration for wage labor and the commercialization of Wixarika art but enhanced access to higher education in urban centers such as Tepic and Guadalajara (83). In chapter 3, Negrín restories through a historical geography of the city of Tepic, Nayarit, how the Wixarika and Náayeri have been simultaneously included within and excluded from the city (86). In chapter 4, she describes two projects led by Wikaritari university students in Guadalajara [End Page 206] that promote the diversity of Indigenous presences and spatial and civic belonging in the city, projects that simultaneously disrupt the Euro-mestizo Tapatío narrative rooted in Guadalajara's colonial foundation and enduring characterization (143, 149). In chapters 3 and 4, Negrín articulates the historical development of Guadalajara and Tepic to trace from the colonial to current era how the geography of race and race relations in Latin America, mestizaje, multiculturalism, and indigenismo has shaped the social imaginaries of Indigenous people in Mexico. Lastly, in chapter 5, Negrín centers makuyeika (individual who walks in many places) to show how Wixaritari urban youth embody "the importance of geography in the formation of individual and collective identities, in a way that disrupts entrenched narratives of indigenous mobility" (16). Makuyeika illuminates the ways Wixaritari university students and professionals express their activism to shift Mexico's racial and spatial imaginary and call for a heterogenous citizenship that recognizes Indigenous peoples in Mexico (182). Racial Alterity, Wixarika Youth Activism, and the Right to the Mexican City's unique contribution is Negrín's focus on Indigenous youth, their agency and activism for recognition and reterritorialization in urban spaces. Her five-year ethnographic collaborative work with the Wixaritari university students and professionals highlights how Wixaritari youth assert their political, geographic, and cultural identities. She counters deficit perspectives of Indigenous people, highlighting generations of Indigenous activists and professionals, especially Wixarika educators, who have demanded cultural rights, navigated school institutions, and advocated for their children in the educational system. Negrín highlights how these professionals and university students have become truly pluricultural and plurilingual and continue to challenge the enduring and denigrating societal scripts and racial maps that attempt to universalize Indigenous peoples' experiences in Mexico. Such professional Wixaritari and also multigeneration family friends facilitated Diana Negrín's access and entry into the relational commitments to the Wixarika communities that are the focus of this book. These lifelong ties and enduring relations make Negrín's work in and beyond this book a beautiful exemplar of community-centered...

Mining indigenous territories: Consensus, tensions and ambivalences in the Salar de Atacama

Lithium mining in Chile's Salar de Atacama (SdA) has a relatively long and controversial history, especially when it comes to the local Indigenous peoples. In this context, this paper looks at the ways mining activities, and different visions of territory and indigeneity co-produce each other in the particular context of the SdA. For this, we use historical and ethnographic methods and draw on studies in anthropology and geography. We aim to escape simplistic images of Indigenous peoples’ reactions to mining as reflecting victimhood, resistance, or strategic pragmatism, and show instead how individuals and groups organize and express themselves in ambivalent ways, maintaining complex relationships with both mining and the territory. According to our local interlocutors, struggles around territory in the SdA mainly concern water scarcity, the survival of this unique ecosystem's biological diversity, as well as continuity and change in local lifeways. While recent agreements between mining companies and local communities may benefit some individuals, they are also generating inter- and intra- community tensions over these issues. We find that mining shapes what 'indigenous' means and who can claim this identity, while Indigenous mobilization in turn shapes how mining is perceived and carried out. Together, mining and Indigenous mobilization produce a particular kind of territory, pervaded by diverse lines of both consensus and tension. Rather than contradictions, the ambivalent positions Indigenous peoples maintain become comprehensible when considering, ethnographically and historically, the particular places and lifeworlds they inhabit, and the asymmetrical patterns of constraint and opportunity they face. More broadly, the paper raises questions about the implications of a global transition to renewable energy based on lithium battery technologies, and ethical responses to the climate crisis.

Introduction to the special issue: mobilizing Indigeneity and race within and against settler colonialism

ABSTRACT Carpio, Barnd, and Barraclough introduce the concepts of ‘settler anchoring’ and ‘mobility sovereignty.’ They argue that settler colonial spaces are structures of mobility injustice, and that securing Indigenous mobility must account for the ability of Indigenous peoples to choose when, where, how, and for what purposes to engage in movement (or not). They illustrate how the practice of mobility underlies the fiction of ‘settling,’ offer examples for understanding Indigenous mobility principles and practices, and examine the potential incommensurabilities between mobility justice and mobility sovereignties that reject settler colonialism. The authors argue for the urgency of integrating the ‘mobilities paradigm’ with Indigenous studies and ethnic studies analyses of settler colonialism, Indigeneity, and race. The article also serves as introduction to the special issue of Mobilities, ‘Mobilizing Indigeneity and Race Within and Against Settler Colonialism.’ The authors preview how the special issue offers new insights into settler colonialism’s mobile architectures, competing technologies of maritime mobility, decolonial forms of landscape conservation on travel corridors, how ‘voluntourism’ enables the crafting of White settler subjectivity, the roles of digital media for displaced peoples, and what it means to move as a sovereign Indigenous nation.

Indigenous migration patterns in Brazil based on the 2010 national demographic census: analysis and critical reflection

Research in several Latin American countries points to violence, loss of traditional territories, and seeking education, health, and wage labor as key variables in triggering rural–urban migration among Indigenous people. This study presents an analysis of the migration patterns of Indigenous people in Brazil, compared to non-indigenous people, based on data from the most recent national census, conducted in 2010. Migration characteristics related to lifetime migration and recent migration were investigated by means of descriptive and multivariable logistic regression analyses. The findings pointed to complex mobility scenarios according to migrants’ Indigenous status and geographical regions of origin and destination. Indigenous people living in urban areas presented high levels of mobility (approximately 50% lived in different municipalities from those where they were born), which were more pronounced than those of non-Indigenous people. Indigenous people living in rural areas presented the lowest levels of migration (approximately 90% residing in their municipality of birth). Statistical modeling confirmed the patterns observed in descriptive analysis, highlighting the marked mobility of Indigenous subjects in urban areas. We emphasize the limitations of using census data for characterizing Indigenous mobility profiles, although no other nationally representative data are available. The finding that the Indigenous population living in urban areas presents rates of migration higher than their non-Indigenous counterparts is particularly important for the planning and implementation of a broad range of public policies aimed at ethnic minorities in the country, including health, education, and housing initiatives.