Indigenous African Languages Research Articles

The Politics of Memory: NLP Models as Liberating Artifacts

The main argument of this article is that natural language processing (NLP) projects of Indigenous African languages can be understood as an effort to restore and preserve Africa’s memory in the digital. Language has always occupied a particular place in the African decolonial imaginary. Several African states embarked on processes of Africanisation of postcolonial institutions in their respective national contexts. One of the main features of this project in many African countries was the restoration of African languages in education and public service. Taking a social constructivist approach rooted in science and technology studies and looking through the analytical lens of decoloniality in Africa, I conceptualise NLP models of Indigenous African languages as liberating artifacts. I mobilise decolonial theory to look at language as a technology that can be used to dis-member and re-member the African subjects of their memory of being as people. The coloniser erased the memory of the African subjugated by cutting off their linguistic connections and instead planted the European memory. From this perspective, decolonisation can be understood as a process of re-memberment that can be achieved through the return of the languages of those whose humanity has been denied or questioned. In this sense, NLP projects offer instances of the digital that represent spaces of restoration and negotiated digital futurities. I contend that these digital spaces in Africa are social spaces of contestation about what common investments should be made, what collective futures are desirable and what are the perceived material consequences of such shared imaginations.

Revisiting the Challenges of Teaching and Learning Indigenous South African Languages

Whereas South Africa has made significant strides after the official end of colonialism and apartheid in 1994 concerning the advancement of indigenous South African languages, there are observable challenges that demonstrate endurance even in the post-colonial and post-apartheid contexts. In particular, there are enduring challenges in the teaching and learning of these languages within the basic and higher education system. With this view in mind, the aim herein is to explore and discuss four noteworthy challenges that obstruct the optimal teaching and learning of indigenous languages in the South African context. It must be noted that this article concentrates on indigenous South African languages in general, and not specific ones. The objective is to uncover and sensitize the language and education policymakers as well as affected stakeholders such as parents, learners, and students that challenges in the context of language in education exhibit determination, hence the necessity to scholarly revisit them in a bid to solicit reasonable solutions to the conundrum. The four noteworthy challenges, which are discussed in the body of this scholarly discourse, are recognized as a source of discussion. The findings and discussion underline that challenges within the language in education in the South African context are multifaceted. One of these challenges could be pinned on colonial and apartheid legacies that appraised oppressive languages to the detriment of indigenous South African languages and dialects. In fact, the Bantu Education Act of 1953 is implicated in this article as one of the principal drivers of the subjugation of these languages. In the same vein, this article implicates some post-colonial and post-apartheid perceptions towards the subjugation of these vernacular languages. The closing remarks highlight the necessity to recurrently debate challenges of indigenous languages within the educational system.

Challenges in Intellectualizing Sesotho for Use in Academic Publications

This paper explores challenges in intellectualizing Sesotho for academic works beyond literary-based theses. It also overviews resources for the intellectualization of official Indigenous languages of South Africa, focusing on national translation projects for terminology development. Furthermore, it highlights efforts by the South African Centre for Digital Language Resources in creating and collecting corpora for all official languages, including Sesotho. Challenges in Sesotho lexicography, especially with corpus-based approaches, are discussed. Additionally, the paper reflects on the authors' experiences with publishing academic articles in Sesotho in South African journals. It discusses obstacles faced, and strategies employed, including dialogues with reviewers on creating new terms and choosing between Lesothan Sesotho and South African Sesotho orthographies. Finally, the essay addresses challenges posed by limited publication avenues for indigenous languages in southern Africa and academic pressures for citations and research impact. It aims to shed light on lesser-known Indigenous languages in Southern Africa by spotlighting challenges and solutions to academic publications in Sesotho. Overall, the paper concludes that efforts at intellectualizing Sesotho and other South African indigenous languages are evident. Even so, there is far less emphasis on using Sesotho and other indigenous languages for academic discourses.

Africa’s lingua franca and its role in the successful implementation of the AfCFTA: a case for Kiswahili as the African commerce and epistemological language

The African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) is the largest free trade agreement in the world in terms of its membership and it has tremendous potential to lift millions of Africans out of poverty through boosting intra-Africa trade by ensuring that Africa has one gigantic market of over 1.3 billion people. For this to be achieved, this trade agreement must be implemented rapidly and to the letter. This article therefore argues that, among others, the use and adoption of an African indigenous language such as Kiswahili can play an important role in enabling Africans to trade with one another with ease and mutual trust. The adoption and use of this language as a potential lingua franca for commerce and teaching and learning also has the potential to harness the innovation and creativity of Africans as this would be emanating from the age-old ingenuity of our forebears. The main argument made here is that language is both the reservoir and vessel for culture and indigenous knowledge systems (IKS), and without its maximum exploitation, our societies will not industrialise and develop. Methodologically, qualitative semi-open-ended interviews and non-participant observation were conducted in Kenya, Tanzania and South Africa to gauge experts’ views on the utility of Kiswahili as a potential Pan-African language. Pan-Africanism and Afrocentricity are key theories deployed in giving shape to this study.

English as a language of preference in mathematics learning: perspectives from high school learners in township contexts

The exploration of language preference among mathematics learners in multilingual contexts remains a significant area of study. The aim of this study is to identify the most effective linguistic tools that contribute to the academic achievement of secondary school learners in mathematics. This study specifically examines English as a preferred language for mathematics instruction among high school learners in a Soshanguve community in the Tshwane West District of South Africa. It investigates the attitudes of mathematics learners towards the use of English as the medium of instruction and the reasons for their preference for learning mathematics in English. The study uses a non-experimental quantitative descriptive survey with a sample of 101 high school mathematics learners. Data was collected using a self-administered survey questionnaire conducted on paper. The primary data was analysed using descriptive statistics. The results indicate that English is the preferred language for learning mathematics. The study also demonstrates that the inclination towards the English language among high school learners is driven by factors such as pedagogical, social, linguistic competence, and economic considerations. The research findings suggest that the use of English as the medium of instruction is crucial for the acquisition and achievement of mathematics skills. This is because learners' indigenous African languages are inadequate as a medium of instruction in mathe­matics classroom conversations among high school learners. Therefore, it is recommended that the Department of Basic Education and mathematics educators should enhance learners' English language competence by implementing intense and enriched language programmes.

Towards the Intellectualisation of Indigenous African Languages Through University Language Policies in South Africa

Although the use of African languages as Languages of Teaching and Learning (LoTLs) at various academic levels and in various fields of knowledge has been gaining momentum, it is yet to be effectively implemented in some South African universities. Failure to implement the use of African languages as LoTLs has often been attributed to their lack of intellectualisation. Deploying Ruiz’s notion of language as a resource, this paper conducts a comparative analysis of language policies of two South African universities to establish how they enable the intellectualisation of indigenous African languages. Through a content analysis of the two universities’ recently revised language policies, the paper discusses the respective institutions’ commitment to the cause of language intellectualisation concerning African languages that have been selected for development as LoTLs. Universities that seek to implement the use of African languages as LoTLs need to come up with language policies that explicitly spell out their intellectualisation plans. The paper further argues that universities need not focus on language status planning only, but also on corpus planning to successfully implement the use of African languages as LoTLs.

Influence of an African Indigenous Language on Classroom Interactions and Discourses

This qualitative interpretative case study aimed to investigate how the developed isiNdebele scientific language register for Natural Sciences influences learners’ classroom interactions and discourses. Data were collected from stakeholders through interviews and observations. The results indicated that the use of African indigenous languages positively shapes learners’ classroom interactions and discourses. Specifically, when learners were taught Natural Sciences using the isiNdebele register, there was maximum interaction in the classroom in contrast to using the English register, where learners were passive for most of the lesson. This highlights the need for developing scientific registers in African indigenous languages. Therefore, it is recommended that these registers be integrated into teaching and learning as they positively influence interactions and discourses, leading to meaningful learning and better performance.

Mother tongue instructions as a human right

The paper aimed at studying the challenges as well as the potential benefits associated with using African languages as the main medium of instructions in Namibian schools. Research indicates that there is more to gain in promoting African languages in all aspects of education and governance than the opposite. Countries that place greater emphasis on mother tongue instructions continue to thrive socially and economically. Countries such as China, Japan, South Korea, are some of the Asian countries who were once dominated by Europeans who opted for investing in their languages and are thriving economically. The results of the research indicates that the sole use of English language as the main medium of instruction in schools is the reason for high failure rates in grade 10 and 12 final examinations. Due to lack of enthusiasm from the government regarding the use of indigenous African languages as M.O.I , many teachers and students alike still prefer English to be the main medium of instruction in schools at the expense of their own languages. The government should revise its education policy on language instruction and put more emphasis on the need to robustly use indigenous African languages with English in all schools.

Micro language planning as a contested space: evidence from a South African university

ABSTRACT Micro language planning is often framed as democratic, transformative, inclusive, and therefore, less contested as it reproduces community consensus and support. This is contrasted with macro or top-down language planning which is power inflected and weaponised to serve interests of the dominant class. Through a theorisation of institutional language policies as products of micro language planning, this article analyses the language policy of one university in South Africa and reveals that, contrary to this widely held view, bottom-up language planning is also a site of struggle and contestation. In particular, we focus on specific language policy provisions that reveal the university’s underlying disposition towards multilingualism and linguistic identities. The analysis reveals multi-layered contestations on multilingualism and identity inherent in the university’s language policy. While the language policy purports to foster transformation by promoting multilingualism through the university’s ‘languages of choice,’ it is not exempt from the vagaries of essentialist identity politics and macro level language ideologies which legitimise English and Afrikaans. By identifying only four languages for promotion, the language policy envisages a kind of ‘exclusionary multilingualism’ that disregards the cosmopolitan character of the university and the identities marked by indigenous African languages left invisibilised by the language policy.

Ukuhlakanishiswa kwezilimi zomdabu Zama-Afrika Enyuvesi yaseFreyistata nomthelela wolwazimfundo kwabalukhulumayo

The University of the Free State Language Policy 2024 takes off from the premise that, firstly, students come from diverse linguistic backgrounds, of which the majority come from a Sesotho language background. Secondly, when our students join the university, they are confronted by English as the medium of instruction which is not their language, thus, it creates a barrier to effective learning. Thirdly, when our students join their specific disciplines, they are also confronted by unfamiliar environments of new disciplinary terminology and concepts which they are expected to learn and master in a foreign language. The language policy made a conscious commitment to develop and intellectualise Sesotho so that it becomes an academic language and a resource for supporting academic access and success for African students, in alignment with the Language Policy Framework for Higher Education 2020. This paper employs a literature-based methodological approach, focusing on a single university as a qualitative case study. Underpinned by the Language Management Theory, we argue that the African indigenous language, Sesotho, requires an effective and conscious process of intellectualisation. Strategies like terminology development are proposed to effectively support the learning of new concepts and theories across disciplines and thus reduce the burden imposed by English instruction among Sesotho speakers. The paper also argues that the intellectualisation of African languages in higher education is critical for ensuring that African students are not provided access without support in the persistent English monolingual higher education fraternity. IQOQA INqubomgomo Yolimi YeNyuvesi YaseFreyistata Yowezi-2024 isusela embonweni wokuthi, okokuqala, abafundi baphuma ezizindeni ezahlukene zezilimi, iningi labo liphuma emakhaya okukhulunywa ulimi lweSesotho. Okwesibili, uma abafundi bengena enyuvesi babhekana nesiNgisi njengolimi lokufundisa okungelona ulimi lwabo, ngaleyo ndlela, kudala isithiyo ekufundeni ngempumelelo. Okwesithathu, lapho abafundi bengena emikhakheni yabo ehlukahlukene abazikhethele yona baphinde babhekane nezimo ezingajwayelekile zamagama amasha aqondene nemikhakha yemfundo abakuyo okulindeleke ukuthi bawafunde futhi bawazi kahle ngolimi lwangaphandle. Inqubomgomo yolimi inika isibophezelo ekuthuthukiseni nasekuhlakanishisweni kweSesotho ukuze sibe ulimi lolwazimfundo kanye nensizakusebenza yokweseka abafundi abangama-Afrika ukuba bafinyelele kulwazimfundo ngempumelelo. Le nqubomgomo iyahambisana futhi noHlaka Lwenqubomgomo Yolimi Yemfundo Ephakeme wezi-2020. Ukubukwa kwalezi zinqubomgomo neminye imibhalo yocwaningo kungenye yezindlela zocwaningo ezisetshenzisiwe njengocwaningo lwesimo ngaphansi kwendlelande yocwaningo lobunjalo botho. Leli phepha elisekelwe Injulalwazi Yokulawulwa Kolimi liqakulisa ngokuthi ulimi lomdabu lwase-Afrika, iSesotho, ludinga inqubo esebenzayo neqaphelayo yobuhlakani ngokusebenzisa amasu afana nokwakhiwa kwamagama. Lokhu kusemqoka ukuze kusekele ngempumelelo ukufundwa kwemicabangonzulu nezinjulalwazi ezintsha emikhakheni yemfundo abakuyo abafundi abakhuluma ulimi lweSesotho. Okunye futhi lokhu kuzophinde kunciphise amandla athweswa isiNgisi phakathi kwabakhulumi bolimi lweSesotho. Leli phepha liphinde liphakamise ukuhlakanishiswa kwezilimi zomdabu zase-Afrika emfundweni ephakeme kubalulekile ukuze kuqinisekiswe ukuthi abafundi abangama-Afrika abanikezwa amathuba okufunda ngaphandle kokusekwa kodwa benikwa imfundo yesiNgisi ewubulimibunye.

Repositioning the concept of Xenophobia in the African context: Why do we allow ourselves to be defined by others?

The main goal of this work is to reposition the concept of xenophobia in the African context. This is to reflect on Thabo Mbeki’s narrative on Xenophobia. Africa continues to remain a pawn due to the Eurocentric ideas that have been forced on the Africans also brought about a foreign concept of xenophobia as if Africans are not brothers in the name of brotherhood. It is incontestable that brothers are, in some cases engage in fight, but there was a laid down rules and norms of resolving such misunderstanding. With the employment of qualitative research methods, complex interdependence theory garnished with Anglo-American conspiracy theory; we argue that, Anglo-American imperialist managed to spread and enforce the usage of English through imposing the concept xenophobia in the continent while failing to capture the essence of sibling fights or fights amongst African brothers and sisters conceptualised by the Batswana speaking people as maragana teng a bana motho. Through acknowledging Mbeki’s narrative and some sampled African languages, we argue that, while there is a word for foreigner in these sampled African languages, there is no direct or indirect translation of xenophobia in African languages. We conclude that the concept xenophobia has its etymological foundations in Greek and is therefore foreign in any of the African and South African indigenous languages.

Careers in languages: Awareness by Grade 12 Tshivenḓa learners in Thembisa, Gauteng

Home language learners exhibit negative attitudes towards South African indigenous languages. These languages are perceived as languages that are not beneficial in terms of upward mobility in the workplace. Being aware of the possibilities of studying South African indigenous languages can be a good motivation for learners. A positive attitude towards careers through South African indigenous languages could help to maintain and promote these languages, Tshivenḓa in particular. The study’s objective was to explore if learners and teachers from selected high schools in Thembisa, Gauteng province, were aware of careers that can be pursued through Tshivenḓa, and thus to help determine their perceptions towards their home language as a subject at schools. The study adopted a qualitative approach and a case study design that purposively sampled 16 participants. The findings indicated that Tshivenḓa learners are not exposed to possible language careers that can be pursued through South African indigenous languages. On the other hand, the findings revealed that teachers were aware of the possible careers in these languages. This study concluded that research must be undertaken to make high school learners aware of the available language careers in South African indigenous languages.Contribution: The study closes the gap in career awareness by making learners and teachers in general, and Tshivenḓa L1 learners and teachers in particular, aware of possible careers that exist in South African indigenous language qualifications. The study highlights the need for producing more qualified language practitioners to promote previously marginalised South African indigenous languages and encourage learners to consider pursuing careers in these languages. It also encourages teachers to put more effort into the teaching of South African indigenous languages and for government departments to do more to promote South African indigenous languages by making sure that services are provided to the citizens in the languages that they understand better; as a result, this would create more job opportunities for language graduates, especially regarding the Tshivenḓa language.

The end of the beginning: Establishing isiZulu names for all bird species recorded in South Africa

Terminology development is needed for effective science communication, planning, teaching, and learning in indigenous African languages. This need includes species-specific names in indigenous languages for wild birds, which are key indicators of biodiversity and the state of the environment. We report here the successful allocation of isiZulu names to all South African bird species, focusing on the final phase of naming species that are unknown or rare in KwaZulu-Natal Province (traditional home of the Zulu people) and thus have no indigenous naming history. We applied principles and procedures used previously for naming species known in KwaZulu-Natal: (1) reference to early bird books, dictionaries and other literature; (2) in-person workshops that included isiZulu language academics, professional Zulu bird guides, and birders; and (3) linguistic strategies to apply Zulu folk taxonomy to scientific ordering of species. At a three-day in-person workshop, we named 327 species unknown or vagrant in KwaZulu-Natal. Much time was spent on allocating cluster names to locally unfamiliar bird groupings such as tropicbirds, gadfly petrels, sandgrouse, and wheatears. The most frequent linguistic strategy was coinage by extension, where previously established isiZulu cluster names, for example ujolwane for ‘sparrow’, were extended by species qualifiers, as in ujolwanomkhulu (sparrow that is great) for Great Sparrow (Passer motitensis). True coinage was also used, as in unothingo (‘rainbow’) for African Pitta (Pitta angolensis). The resulting catalogue of isiZulu names for all 876 South African species completes the terminology development phase to facilitate engagement of isiZulu in science and conservation involving birds.

Discourse-Pragmatic Borrowing in South African English

This paper explores five borrowed discourse-pragmatic features—wena, mna/mina, yazi, phela, and ke—which are transferred from indigenous South African languages into South African English, with the objective of investigating their frequency, position, collocational patterns, and discourse-pragmatic functions. The data, which are taken from the South African component of the Global Web-based English corpus, are analysed quantitatively and qualitatively, from a postcolonial corpus pragmatic framework. The results show that the discourse-pragmatic features are generally infrequent, orthographically stable, and prefer the clause-initial position. The paper indicates that wena is used as an address term to call for the addressee’s attention, mna/mina is used to emphasise personal identity, while yazi seeks confirmation of and signals shared knowledge. Phela is an emphasis marker, while ke indicates contrast, textual coherence, and emphasis. This study underscores the contributions of indigenous South African languages to the discourse-pragmatic features of South African English.

How has the quest for <i>itiwa sleeti</i> aided the neglect of African indigenous languages?

Itiwa sleeti in a loose translation means “to break the slate,” is an aphorism that was used during colonial period and beyond by Igbo- Africans to denote an unbridled passion to the acquisition of western education. Due to the high cost of acquiring western education and the intellectual rigor involved, many African parents could not face this challenge at that point in time. As a result these parents later took up the remedial challenge of bequeathing their children this perceived asset which they didn’t get. Unfortunately, this unbridled pursuit has left many valuable African cultures to be neglected and subjugated on the long run. The disastrous impact of this neglect is felt in the use of African indigenous languages because many of them are currently endangered while some have gone into extinction. My aim in this essay is to show how the unbridled quest for western education has aided the neglect of African indigenous languages. Though, some external factors like multilingualism, (which is a fall out of mindless partitioning of the continent by the west), Over-reliance on foreign languages as official language of instructions by Africans and their government and underdeveloped vocabularies and concepts have necessitated this neglect. I argue that there is an internal factor that is pioneered by African parents to foist these foreign languages on their children with the “mind view” that foreign languages serve the “actual need” of the hour more than indigenous languages. I contend that since the indigenous languages help the African child to establish both emotional and intellectual closeness with their parents in communicating their feelings in their own indigenous language at home, then restoration of African indigenous languages should begin from the home since charity they say begins from home.

Exploring intellectualisation of South African indigenous languages for academic purposes

Language represents an individual’s identity in many respects. It is a natural ability of any average person that they use to express thoughts and ideas, investigate their traditions and experiences, and better their community and the laws that govern it. The ability to choose the official language was acknowledged in the Bill of Rights, and the Constitution acknowledges that indigenous languages are a commodity which has not been fully used. By studying the difficulties of intellectualising indigenous languages in modern South Africa, this research aims to promote the usage and enhance the prestige of indigenous languages. The challenge in basic education in South Africa is that South African indigenous languages are not prioritised. Moreover, there appears to be a disconnection between language policy and implementation.Contribution: A document analysis was undertaken to review literature on the possibility of intellectualising South African indigenous languages by considering various theories and methods of terminology development, including interborrowing within South African indigenous languages and adaptation of some English and Afrikaans words as already entrenched languages in education.

The use of technology to preserve indigenous languages of South Africa

Indigenous languages in South Africa must be preserved to ensure that they do not lose their identity and become extinct. The four indigenous languages with the fewest speakers among South Africa’s 12 official languages are: Xitsonga, Siswati, Tshivenḓa and isiNdebele. The preservation of these languages in South Africa has been a long-standing challenge because of various social and economic factors. With the advancement of technology, opportunities have arisen to preserve and promote the use of these languages. Therefore, this study explores various technological strategies that can be used to preserve the South African indigenous languages. These languages can be preserved by making them widely accessible to users through various strategies such as localisation of daily used technology, translation through crowdsourcing, digitisation and archiving. Digital learning tools such as machine translation (MT) and creating online dictionaries can also contribute to preserving these languages. Each of these strategies offers benefits on how technology could be employed effectively and facilitate the preservation of indigenous languages. This study demonstrates the significance of technology in preserving indigenous languages and promoting their use around the world.Contribution: This study fills the practical gap in the use of technology to adequately preserve minority indigenous languages of South Africa, namely, Xitsonga, Siswati, Tshivenḓa and isiNdebele. These languages do not receive much attention in terms of preservation using technology in South Africa. Therefore, the study provides practical technological strategies that need to be implemented to preserve the indigenous minority languages. The insight of this study into the use of technology to preserve South African languages fits well within the scope of Literator, which is to publish studies in linguistics and literature with a special focus on South African languages. This publication will bring solutions to how minority languages could be preserved in the context of South Africa.

Meaning in Wittgenstein and African Indigenous Languages

Meaning in Wittgenstein and African Indigenous Languages

Stakeholder Perspectives on the Integration of African Languages in Higher Education Learning: A South African Case Study

Since the dawn of democracy in South Africa (1994), higher education has ex- perienced substantial demographic changes. Despite South Africa’s status as a multilingual country with linguistic diversity recognised by the Constitution, higher education institutions inadequately represent this multilingualism. This gap has been identified as a contributing factor to the underperformance of students who speak Indigenous African languages in higher education. Con- sequently, various policies have been implemented to amplify the presence of African languages in higher education. Employing a case study design, this research aimed to delve into the perspectives of diverse stakeholders in a Cell Bi- ology module at a South African university regarding the use of African languages to support learning in higher education. Students, lecturers, and practical demon- strators were asked about their thoughts on the use of African languages to assist African language-speaking students. Findings revealed a divide in opinion, with students overwhelmingly in favour, lecturers expressing conflicting views, and demonstrators who spoke African languages generally supportive, while others had reservations. In the end, the central question posed is: Whose opinion holds more significance, that of the students or their lecturers?

Beyond Colonization: Reimagining English And Indigenous Voices In Africa’s Linguistic Landscape

This paper explores the enduring legacy of British colonization on the proliferation of English in Africa. It also critically examines dual role of the colonizers as both a catalyst for global integration and a relic of colonial hegemony. Through a meticulous review of both historical and contemporary academic literature, including seminal contributions from scholars such as Albaugh, Brock-Utne, and Makoni, this study illuminates the complex dynamics between English and indigenous African languages within socio-political, economic, and educational contexts. The analysis foregrounds the historical evolution of English from a language of commerce to its present-day stature as a global lingua franca, while also highlighting the nuanced challenges it poses to linguistic diversity and cultural heritage. The methodology employed integrates a critical examination of linguistic imperialism, the socio-economic implications of English dominance, and the potential of bilingual and multilingual education models to foster linguistic equity and cultural preservation. Findings indicate that English, deeply rooted in colonial history, remains a pivotal force in shaping contemporary African identity, governance, and access to global discourse. However, this influence is twofold; it facilitates international communication and opportunity, yet also risks overshadowing indigenous languages and cultures. The article supports the implementation of language policies that are sensitive to the complexities of linguistic variety. It promotes the idea of a multilingual African identity that recognizes the worldwide importance of English, while also actively protecting and revitalizing indigenous languages. This article advocates for a rebuilt linguistic landscape in post-colonial Africa that combines the advantages of English literacy with the rich cultural and intellectual heritage represented by Africa’s indigenous languages.??