Indigenous African Languages Research Articles

Über das Verhältnis des Französischen zu den einheimischen Sprachen im postkolonialen Afrika: Eine Bestandsaufnahme

Early intercultural contact occurred in West Africa through transatlantic slavery and colonisation. This led to the development of hybridized cultures in many parts of the world. Depending on the historical context in different communities, this cultural hybridization has manifested itelf in linguistic forms and is currently central in post-colonical discourse. It is possible to trace current power relations and social hierarchies in a particular community back to the relationship between colonial languages (which in many cases are used as official languages, languages of business and languages in education) and the indigenous local languages (which were disregarded in colonial times). This paper considers how the relationship between French and indigenous African languages, in such a context, is to be estimated in various domains of use.

Vocational language learning and teaching at a South African university: Preparing professionals for multilingual contexts

This paper highlights the methodology that has been used at Rhodes University and other SouthAfrican universities in implementing vocation-specific African language learning programmes.Essentially, the paper links the curriculum design to the theoretical paradigm of interculturalcommunication. Intercultural theory is used as a basis to develop vocation-specific courses wherelanguage and culture are taught, for example, to second language learners of isiXhosa at RhodesUniversity. These courses include courses for Pharmacy and Law students. This paper offers a newtheoretical paradigm for intercultural language teaching. Furthermore, examples from specific coursesare provided in order to illustrate how this theoretical paradigm can be implemented in a practicalway. The impact of multilingualism and intercultural communication in the wider legal and healthcarework environment in South Africa is also discussed.Keywords: vocational language learning, indigenous African languages, multilingualism, interculturalcommunication, cultural awareness, cultural sensitivity, legal professional, health-care professional,law, pharmacy

Afrikaans as an index of identity among Western Cape Coloured communities

In South Africa, reports on language shift have focused on instances of language shift from indigenous African languages to English. There is, however, also research that suggests that language shift is taking place from Afrikaans to English in the Western Cape. Anthonissen (2009), for example, notes in her research among Coloured communities that a shift has taken place from Afrikaans first language (L1), across three generations, to English L1. Against this backdrop, this paper investigates language shift in two semi-urban Western Cape Coloured communities; in particular, it examines what patterns of language shift/maintenance can be observed, and investigates sociolinguistic factors, such as age, language of schooling, socio-economic status and language attitudes, to which the observed patterns can be ascribed. The aim is to ascertain whether language shift, from Afrikaans to English has taken place, and which factors appear to encourage or discourage language shift in the two communities. Through the administration of a questionnaire to 50 households, 25 in each of the communities, the study this paper reports on examined language use across a number of domains: at home, in the community, in church, and in the workplace. It also explored the language attitudes of the participants (53 in total) towards Afrikaans in order to investigate the possibility that this language might be used for indexing their identity. The collected data does not provide any evidence of language shift from Afrikaans to English. However, there seems to be increased use of English in the public domains (such as the workplace and in the church), with Afrikaans being used almost exclusively in the intimate domains. It appears that Afrikaans remains a strong marker of identity in the two semi-urban Western Cape Coloured communities, despite English largely being regarded as the language of upward socio-economic mobility.

“Glocalization”: Going Beyond the Dichotomy of Global Versus Local Through Additive Multilingualism

This article interrogates the notion of “glocalization” (Moja, 2004, based on Castells, 2001) as a concept that seeks to integrate the local and the global to address both the need for social justice and the need to participate in a global market economy. The article argues that the relation between the global and the local cannot be explored without acknowledging the inequality inherent in this relation. The concept of glocalization is examined in the arena of language and education by theorizing a dual-medium undergraduate degree offered in English and an Indigenous African language (Sesotho sa Leboa) at the University of Limpopo. This degree curricularizes the principle of additive bilingualism, which both challenges the domination of English (as an expression of cultural imperialism), yet makes it available as a right to students from hugely impoverished schooling backgrounds. The degree simultaneously promotes Sesotho sa Leboa as a language of high-level cognition, knowledge construction, and dissemination; and, therefore, places it on par with English. In addition, the article briefly focuses on the concept of “translanguaging” as one of the resources used by our students to access scientific knowledge.

English in Tanzania: A linguistic cultural perspective

<strong><strong></strong></strong><p align="LEFT">T<span style="font-family: DejaVuSerifCondensed; font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: DejaVuSerifCondensed; font-size: small;">alking about ‘English in Tanzania’ or what Schneider (2007) has in general </span></span>categorized as postcolonial English for that matter instantaneously evokes notions pertaining to language contact as well as the fi eld of contact linguistics. It was the British colonization of East African territories in the fi rst half of the 20th century that brought English into the region and consequently set off the contact process with indigenous local languages that would subsequently shape and defi ne the dynamics of linguistic culture as still observed today. Of particular interest is the contact and subsequent coexistence between English and Swahili especially in Tanzania. There is no any country in sub-Saharan Africa other than Tanzania that provides a perfect illustration of the dynamics of language contact in the 20th century and beyond between a European language and an indigenous African language in the African setting – to the extent that a story of ‘English in Tanzania’ would blatantly appear incomplete without bringing in a story of ‘Swahili in Tanzania’ and vice versa. This is exactly what this paper has assigned itself to do – examining a linguistic culture that has evolved in a particular time and space with English and Swahili occupying the center. Nevertheless, the literature on the topic abounds; only that its linguistic cultural dimension has not been privileged enough. Linguistic culture encompasses dynamics related to language contact phenomena such as lexical and grammatical borrowings, code-mixing, bilingualism, language shift, development of pidgins and creoles, attitudes toward languages, linguistic stereotypes and prejudices, and the like. Contact linguistics as an analytical tool pertaining to the structural aspects of bilingual language production is not marginalized in linguistic cultural approach but rather it is highlighted in order to provide concrete evidence on the cultural dimension. In this regard, ‘English in Tanzania’ is explored by contextualizing it within the parameters of the dynamics of Tanzanian linguistic cultural landscape. Specifi cally the paper outlines the dynamics of Tanzanian linguistic culture evolving around the English language, of course, alongside Swahili in terms of distinct political periods between the British colonial era and today’s era of globalization; second, it concentrates on actual language use and related public discourse as observed in public space; third, it demonstrates communicative creativity arising from the coexistence between English and Swahili and, fi nally, it concludes with recapitulation regarding the signifi cance of linguistic cultural approach to sociolinguistics explorations.</p>

Affirming a Role for Specialised Dictionaries in Indigenous African Languages

One of the main problems facing speakers and language practitioners of indigenous African languages is the shortage of appropriate dictionaries for a variety of purposes. This lack results in users consulting any available but inappropriate dictionaries. Quite often, users are disappointed because a wrong dictionary does not normally provide the required assistance. Various functions, which the dictionary may serve, are sought in vain from inappropriate dictionaries and other terminological products. Consequently, the potential of lexicography in general and specialised lexicography in particular, remains unrealised owing to a variety of reasons. This article which mainly discusses the specialised dictionary, draws insights from Wiegand's (1984) general theory of lexicography and the theory of lexicographic functions (Bergenholtz and Tarp 1995, 2003; Tarp 2000, 2002, 2008) to affirm the role of specialised dictionaries in indigenous African languages and also to give insights into how such dictionaries may be produced.OPSOMMING: Die bevestiging van 'n rol vir gespesialiseerde woordeboeke in die inheemse Afrikatale. Een van die hoofprobleme waarvoor sprekers en taalpraktisyns van inheemse Afrikatale te staan kom, is die tekort aan gepaste woordeboeke vir 'n verskeidenheid doeleindes. Hierdie gebrek lei daartoe dat gebruikers enige bekombare maar ongeskikte woordeboeke raadpleeg. Heel dikwels word gebruikers teleurgestel omdat 'n verkeerde woordeboek nie normaalweg die verlangde hulp verskaf nie. Verskillende funksies wat die woordeboek kan aanbied, word tevergeefs in ongeskikte woordeboeke en ander terminologiese produkte gesoek. Gevolglik bly die potensiaal van die leksikografie in die algemeen en die gespesialiseerde leksikografie in die besonder onverwesenlik vanweë 'n verskeidenheid redes. Hierdie artikel wat hoofsaaklik die gespesialiseerde leksikografie bespreek, verkry insigte uit Wiegand (1984) se algemene teorie van die leksikografie en die teorie van leksikografiese funksies (Bergenholtz and Tarp 1995, 2003; Tarp 2000, 2002, 2008) om die rol van gespesialiseerde woordeboeke in die inheemse Afrikatale te bevestig, en ook om insigte te verskaf in hoe sulke woordeboeke gemaak kan word.Sleutelwoorde: LEKSIKOGRAFIE, TSD-LEKSIKOGRAFIE, METALEKSIKOGRAFIE, WOORDEBOEKGESKIEDENIS, WOORDEBOEKKRITIEK, WOORDEBOEKTIPOLOGIE, WOORDEBOEKSTRUKTUUR, TSD-WOORDEBOEK, AFRIKATALE, LEKSIKOGRAFIESE FUNKSIES

Borrowing and Dictionary Compilation: The Case of the Indigenous South African Languages

Borrowing occurs when a language adds a word from another language to its own lexicon. Languages in neighbouring regions often borrow from each other. In South Africa, there are over nine indigenous languages, in addition to Afrikaans and English, all of which coexist. In their coexistence they borrow from one another. African language dictionaries reveal that these languages have borrowed a great deal from Afrikaans and English. However, one would expect these dictionaries to reflect some borrowing from other indigenous languages; on the contrary, they include very few such words. Although, one encounters many words from indigenous languages being used by other African languages in their spoken language and literary works, these are not included in dictionaries. This article seeks to highlight factors contributing to the failure to include words borrowed from other indigenous languages in African language dictionaries.OPSOMMING: Ontlening en woordeboeksamestelling: Die geval van inheemse Suid-Afrikaanse tale. Ontlening vind plaas wanneer 'n taal 'n woord uit 'n ander taal by sy eie leksikon voeg. Tale in aangrensende streke leen dikwels van mekaar. Daar is meer as nege inheemse tale in Suid-Afrika, bo en behalwe Afrikaans en Engels, wat saam bestaan. In hulle naasbestaan leen hulle van mekaar. Afrikataal-woordeboeke getuig daarvan dat hierdie tale heelwat uit Afrikaans en Engels geleen het. Daar sou egter verwag kon word dat hierdie woordeboeke sal getuig van ontlening uit ander inheemse tale; in teendeel, hulle sluit baie min van sulke woorde in. Alhoewel baie woorde van inheemse tale in ander Afrikatale gebruik word in die gesproke taal en letterkundige werke, is hierdie woorde nie in die woordeboeke opgeneem nie. Die doel van hierdie artikel is om die faktore uit te lig wat bydra tot die versuim om leenwoorde van ander inheemse tale in die Afrikataal-woordeboeke op te neem.Sleutelwoorde: ONTLENING, WOORDEBOEKSAMESTELLING, INHEEMSE TALE, LEKSIKON, MORFEEM, WOORDESKAT, ONTWIKKELENDE TALE, LEENWOORDE, TERMINOLOGIE, ETIMOLOGIE, LEKSIKOGRAFIE

The Cause of Urban Slang and its Effect on the Development of the Northern Sotho Lexicon*

Urban slang terminology is extensively used today by most indigenous communities when speaking various South African indigenous languages. This is usually the case with informal conversations where the type of language used is also regarded to be informal. There are many instances where slang terms are used, consciously or unconsciously, in the form of code-switching with the indigenous languages in formal speech or informal conversations. These urban slang terms are regarded by most of the South African indigenous communities as prestige terms, especially by the young generation. Just as English and Afrikaans terminologies which had tremendous influence on the vocabularies of the indigenous languages, urban slang terminology has great influence on the daily usage of the South African indigenous languages. Despite this pressure, Northern Sotho and other South African indigenous languages do not have officially recognized adoptives which are derived from slang terminology. This is due to the fact that most language authorities do not want to associate their standard languages with urban slang because of various reasons which include, inter alia, the conservative idea of associating urban slang with crime and juvenile delinquency. Despite the negative attitudes of most of the conservative language authorities who regard the loan words of urban slang origin to be "contaminating" the South African indigenous languages (such as Northern Sotho), this slang terminology is every day becoming more popular and seems to have come to stay rather than be removed from the language of the people. A considerable fraction of the vocabulary of Northern Sotho, for instance, is made up of words which can be regarded as "loan words" derived from urban slang, even though formally we are still refusing to accept them as part of the lexicon of official Northern Sotho.Keywords: EUPHEMISM, FLYTAAL, INFERIOR DIALECT, INFERIOR LANGUAGE, MULTILINGUALISM, NORTHERN SOTHO LEXICON, PRESTIGE LANGUAGE, PRESTIGE TERMINOLOGY, SECRET TERMINOLOGY, TSOTSITAAL, URBAN SLANG, UNDERWORLDOpsomming: Die oorsprong van stedelike sleng en die uitwerking daarvanop die ontwikkeling van die Noord-Sotholeksikon. Stedelike slengterminologieword tans wyd gebruik deur die meeste inheemse gemeenskappe wanneer hulle verskillendeinheemse Suid-Afrikaanse tale praat. Dit is gewoonlik die geval met informele gesprekke waar die gebruikte tipe taal ook as informeel beskou word. Daar is baie gevalle waar slengterme, bewustelikof onbewustelik, gebruik word in die vorm van kodewisseling met die inheemse tale in formelespraak of informele gesprekke. Hierdie stedelike slengterme word as prestigeterme deur die meestevan die inheemse Suid-Afrikaanse gemeenskappe, veral deur die jong generasie beskou. Netsoos Engelse en Afrikaanse terminologieë wat groot invloed op die woordeskat van die inheemsetale gehad het, het stedelike slengterminologie 'n groot invloed op die daaglikse gebruik van dieinheemse Suid-Afrikaanse tale. Ten spyte van hierdie druk het Noord-Sotho en ander inheemseSuid-Afrikaanse tale nie amptelik erkende leenwoorde wat van slengterminologie afgelei is nie. Ditis die gevolg van die feit dat die meeste taaloutoriteite nie hul standaardtale geassosieer wil hê metstedelike sleng nie, vanweë verskillende redes wat, onder andere, die konserwatiewe idee van dieassosiasie van stedelike sleng met misdaad en jeugmisdaad insluit. Ten spyte van die negatiewehoudings van die meeste konserwatiewe taaloutoriteite wat die leenwoorde van stedelikeslengoorsprongbeskou as "kontaminerend" vir die inheemse Suid-Afrikaanse tale (soos Noord-Sotho),word hierdie slengterminologie elke dag meer populêr en lyk dit of dit blywend is eerder as verwyderbaaruit die taal van die mense. 'n Aansienlike deel van die woordeskat van Noord-Sotho,byvoorbeeld, bestaan uit woorde wat beskou kan word as "leenwoorde" verkry uit stedelike sleng,alhoewel ons nog formeel weier om hulle as deel van die leksikon van offisiële Noord-Sotho teaanvaar.Sleutelwoorde: EUFEMISME, FLAAITAAL, ONDERGESKIKTE DIALEK, ONDERGESKIKTE TAAL, MEERTALIGHEID, NOORD-SOTHOLEKSIKON, PRESTIGETAAL, PRESTIGETERMINOLOGIE, GEHEIME TERMINOLOGIE, TSOTSITAAL, STEDELIKE SLENG, ONDERW?- RELD

Gilles-Maurice de Schryver (editor-in-chief) et al. Oxford IsiZulu-IsiNgisi/English-Zulu Isichazamazwi Sesikole / School Dictionary.

The publishers of this dictionary are to be commended on a new approach to school dictionaries in the South African context. This publication is a most important addition to the range of dictionaries linking indigenous African languages with English presently available, especially since there is a dearth of desk dictionaries in which a Nguni language (e.g. Zulu or Xhosa) is lemmatised. Until now, such dictionaries (in which English lemmas are coupled with Zulu or Xhosa translations and/or definitions) have mostly served as decoding resource for mother tongue speakers of the Nguni language or an encoding resource for speakers of English. This dictionary breaks new ground in that it provides the ‘ordinary’ user (i.e. not only funded lexicographers, who have access to comprehensive dictionaries) with access to the full spectrum of what a translating dictionary should have on offer. Good things are to be said about the format of presentation. As in the case of the Oxford English-Afrikaans School dictionary, its attractive design and structure presents an invitation to the would-be user to mine the contents for links to the target language. Structured according to the well-developed Oxford template, it combines usefulness with attractiveness. The cover design, as one has come to know it, sports the ubiquitous corporate identity and marketing slogans, but also reveals important information about the content, in addition to a brief preview of the microstructure on the back cover. A highlighted grouping of some three articles from both languages is used to demonstrate four key areas of application, e.g. the appropriate selection from the domain of usage, high frequency equivalents, actual usage, and the inclusion of subject terminology as used in the school curriculum.

Negotiating property rights in southern africa through the novel magora panyama: A legal perspective

Summary In Africa, debates on the question of property rights have tended to be carried out in learned law journals and in legal courts. This narrowing of the sites where contestations over property rights are fought over has then tended to overshadow other potential sites where issues of property rights are debated. In southern Africa, creative writers have been at the forefront of using their art composed in African indigenous languages to depict the conflicts that arise in the traditional and modern legal systems. Fiction has tended to provide a moral compass using characters whose actions undergird certain social forces representing ideas behind certain laws that govern the negotiation of property rights. Fiction has also used its images to suggest acceptable legal principles, rules and regulations that can be emulated when Africans negotiate property rights among themselves. The aim of this article is to use the novel Magora Panyama (1999) [Vultures on the Carcasses] to demonstrate how the author depicts (1) the handling of property rights from the perspective of the unwritten moral and traditional African customary law, (2) the understanding of property rights in the modern law/courts brought by colonialism, (3) the contestation of these two dual legal forms for the battle of the African souls. The article argues that the author of the novel adopts a moderate ideological stance that recognises some aspects of traditional customary law as important and rejects other aspects viewed as extreme. The author also adopts the most positive attributes of modern law.

Diphthong simplification through spreading: An Optimality Theory account

This article examines diphthong simplification in the English speech of Shona L1 speakers, focusing on glide epenthesis, which is analysed as spreading, and substitution. Previous researches of African varieties of English have repeatedly shown that most of these varieties, like many indigenous African languages, do not tolerate complex syllable nuclei such as diphthongs and triphthongs. Consequently, all English diphthongs and triphthongs are prone to monophthongisation through simplification strategies such as glide epenthesis, glide formation, deletion and substitution. Our analysis employs analytical tools from the Unified Feature Geometry (UFG) model and Optimality Theory (OT). Glide epenthesis involves spreading of place features from input coronal or labial vowels resulting in homorganic oral glides: [j] and [w] respectively. This pattern of diphthong simplification is in keeping with the processes of Shona native phonology, which spread V-Place features to create hiatus breakers such as [j, w, ].

The Ever-Increasing Demand For (And Reliance On) French And English In Post-Independence Sub-Saharan Africa

In the years immediately following the attainment of independence, in the early 1960s for the most part, African countries south of the Sahara firmly entrenched English and French (the ex-colonial languages) as the main official languages of government, business, the judiciary, the legislature, trade and commerce, formal education and other high-status functions. These languages have continued to have a grip on the African peoples and to enjoy elevated and prestigious status while, in most cases, mere lip service has been paid to the practical promotion of indigenous African languages. The present article takes a fresh objective look at the situation of French and English in contemporary Africa and the relative power relations between them. It further examines how some African countries have tried to implement English/French strategic bilingualism and the role they have assigned to African languages in these countries. It ends with a few suggestions/recommendations on how the functional status of African languages could be enhanced through interventionist policy decisions and practical implementation of these decisions on the ground. It also demonstrates the mutual complementarity of African languages and global languages inherited from the colonial era, in a symbiotic relationship and partnership for development.Keywords: dominant/minority language, linguistic hegemony, high-status function, de jure/de facto official language

Affirming a Role for Specialised Dictionaries in Indigenous African Languages

Affirming a Role for Specialised Dictionaries in Indigenous African Languages

Borrowing and Dictionary Compilation: The Case of the Indigenous South African Languages

Borrowing occurs when a language adds a word from another language to its own lexicon. Languages in neighbouring regions often borrow from each other. In South Africa, there are over nine indigenous languages, in addition to Afrikaans and English, all of which coexist. In their coexistence they borrow from one another. African language dictionaries reveal that these languages have borrowed a great deal from Afrikaans and English. However, one would expect these dictionaries to reflect some borrowing from other indigenous languages; on the contrary, they include very few such words. Although, one encounters many words from indigenous languages being used by other African languages in their spoken language and literary works, these are not included in dictionaries. This article seeks to highlight factors contributing to the failure to include words borrowed from other indigenous languages in African language dictionaries. Keywords: Borrowing, Dictionary Compilation, Indigenous Languages, Lexicon, Morpheme, Vocabulary, Developing Languages, Loan Words, Terminology, Etymology, Lexicography

The Tshivenda–English Thalusamaipfi/Dictionary as a Product of South African Lexicographic Processes

The publication of a dictionary is regarded as the result of a lexicographic process. Three subtypes of a lexicographic process have been noted, namely the primary comprehensive, the secondary comprehensive and the dictionary specific lexicographic processes. In South Africa, the three lexicography processes correspond to the respective mandates of the Pan South African Language Board (PanSALB), the National Lexicography Units (NLUs) and the editorial teams involved in the compilation of the specific dictionaries. This hierarchical arrangement of the lexicographic practice is supported by the government within the country's national multilingual policy which was lauded in linguistic and lexicographic circles as a triumph for cultural democracy. It is almost a decade since these planned lexicographic processes have been in place. It seems the right time to consider the products of these South African lexicographic processes which are envied by many foreign lexicographers, especially in Africa. Accordingly, the article evaluates these lexicographic processes with special reference to the Tshivenda–English Thalusamaipfi/Dictionary. Specifically, it addresses the question: To what extent does this dictionary represent lexicographic development in the indigenous South African languages which were marginalised before the establishment of the NLUs? A few insights are drawn from modern lexicographic theories for the general improvement of future lexicographic practice in languages with limited lexicographic tools such as Venda. Keywords: Lexicographic Process, Lexicographic Planning, Pansalb, National Lexicography Units, Lexicographic Practice, Metalexicography, Dictionary, Bilingual Dictionary, Macrostructure, Microstructure

The usage of African languages in three selected contemporary German novels set in Africa

This paper will focus on the use of indigenous African languages as well as the acquisition of language as a motif in selected contemporary German novels set in Africa. The aim of this paper is to show where the portrayal of indigenous languages fits into the quest for high sale figures as the German contemporary novel set in Africa aims to provide the greatest amount of entertainment to the largest number of readers (cf. Nusser 2000:13; Jordaan 2008:31). The word ‘contemporary’ refers to approximately the last ten years and ‘German’ to novels written in the German language, i.e. novels from Switzerland (for example) are also included. The nature, quantity and function of utterances from three selected contemporary German novels will be presented, in order to show how the use of African languages in these novels can create, perpetuate and resolve suspense in the plot. Keywords: African languages, German novels, Ein Land das Himmel heißt, Die weiße Jägerin, Afrika mon Amour, Africa

Language and the current challenges in the South African school system

The paper discusses the current challenges facing the school system in South Africa with regard to language, and the role schools can play to achieve the government’s objective of multilingualism. Schools are viewed as the most fertile ground for the promotion of multilingualism, as they are attended by learners from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. What obtains in many schools, especially former Model C schools, is that most of them have not included indigenous African languages in their school curricula. The few that have, offer them at second or third language level – just ‘isiZulu for communication’, etc. In this way, only the language for communication purposes is taught, which does not mean full literacy in the language, or cultural integration. The argument is that with a willing heart on the part of the School Governing Body (SGB), as well as the School Management Team (SMT), language could be used as a tool to integrate learners. This, it is argued, does not obtain in the majority of urban schools. The paper is part of a study which was conducted in 2007. It is, therefore, underpinned by empirical evidence which was solicited from urban (English and Afrikaans medium), and rural (English and isiZulu medium) schools. Keywords: Language, schools, South Africa, South African Schools

Progress and challenges for language policy implementation at the University of KwaZulu-Natal

The University of KwaZulu-Natal approved its bilingual language policy in 2006 based on the framework of the National Language Policy for Higher Education of 2002. The guiding principles of this policy suggest that the university develops the use of isiZulu as a language of instruction and communication, in line with recommendations of the Ministerial Committee report, which investigated the development of indigenous African languages as media of instruction in higher education. The implementation of the bilingual policy began in 2008, under the responsibility of the university's language board and faculties. Whilst debates on the policy itself are endless, there are foreseen challenges in its implementation. This is a case of ‘acquisition planning’ as in effect acquisition of isiZulu as a second language will be expected from all the university staff and students. The purpose of this article is to discuss some of these challenges and to identify steps towards language policy implementation.

Counting the losses: numbers as the language of language endangerment

This paper provides a set of critical reflections on the use(s) of numbers to communicate facts about the changing dynamics of speech communities undergoing language shift. Such numerical representations are widespread, and they are of important in segments of language expertise. After a literature survey of counting practices, the paper focuses on three language-ideological decisions underpinning language counting: First, decisions need to be made as to who counts as a speaker. In discussions of language endangerment, speaker counts are the most important single index of the endangered character of the language. Secondly, in order to count the number of distinct languages in a region, country, or world area, decisions must be made which privilege a notion of languages as bounded, closed, and geographically fixed entities. Finally, decisions need to be made with respect to the domains in which “small,” endangered, or minority languages continue to be used. From the discussion of domains we develop an alternative vision that centers not on distinct, named, countable languages, but on speakers and repertoires, and on the actual resources that speakers deploy in actual contexts. The contemporary situation of speakers of indigenous Sami, African and Native American languages will be drawn upon for examples.

Reviewing the Curriculum of African Literature in Our Universities: A Case for Literature in Indigenous Languages

A number of African literature scholars including Emenyonu (2006) Nnolim (2006) and Hale (2006) made cases for a radical change of focus of African Literature of the 21st century. While Emenyonu advocated for a new direction in the millennium that will challenge the writers. readers, teachers, and publishers of African literature to invest their best initiatives in harnessing the 20th century legacies of African literature towards a consolidated base for the 21st century, Nnolim advocated that the African writers/scholars in this century must be challenged to envision a new Africa which has achieved parity (politically, technologically, economically, and militarily with Europe and America. He has to widen his canvas. However, all their recommendations fell short of a complete and holistic re-focusing of the objectives of African literary studies in the 21st century, as it did not incorporate a deliberate attempt at recognizing literature in indigenous African languages as key elements not only in African literature, criticism and analysis but also in the curriculum for its teaching in our universities. Proving that literature in African languages, be it prose as in Ofomata’s Ihe Ojoo Gbaa Afo (Iwuchukwu, 2006) or drama as in A.B Chukuezi’s Udo Ka Mma (Ikeokwu, 2005) or poetry all like such works in the imperialist languages, English, French, Portuguese. Etc. mirrors the society, presenting its ills and problems with the intent of reforming by proffering solutions. Some of those authors using the vernacular see, hear, feel, go or sense what others using the colonial languages cannot see, hear, feel, go or sense. The paper wonders why such works as stated above and many others not stated as well as the vital messages conveyed, should be left unexplored nor insight about them not form part of the knowledge an African literature student should acquire. The paper further makes case for the review of the African literature curriculum content to accommodate courses that will expose the students to some details about literature in African languages. It argues that the continued exclusion of this component of the curriculum remains a subtle emasculation of the African-ness in African literature which suggests a lack of the literary will required to anchor the 21st century African literature on a radically different pedestal from those of the previous centuries.