Indicators Of Regional Development Research Articles

Risk identification of public opinion on social media: a new approach based on cross-spatial network analysis

Purpose This study aims to use geographical information on social media for public opinion risk identification during a crisis. Design/methodology/approach This study constructs a double-layer network that associates the online public opinion with geographical information. In the double-layer network, Gaussian process regression is used to train the prediction model for geographical locations. Second, cross-space information flow is described using local government data availability and regional internet development indicators. Finally, the structural characteristics and information flow of the double-layer network are explored to capture public opinion risks in a fine-grained manner. This study used the early stages of the COVID-19 outbreak for validation analyses, and it collected more than 90,000 pieces of public opinion data from microblogs. Findings In the early stages of the COVID-19 outbreak, the double-layer network exhibited a radiating state, and the information dissemination was more dependent on the nodes with higher in-degree. Moreover, the double-layer network structure showed geographical differences. The risk contagion was more significant in areas where information flow was prominent, but the influence of nodes was reduced. Originality/value Public opinion risk identification that incorporates geographical scenarios contributes to enhanced situational awareness. This study not only effectively extends geographical information on social media, but also provides valuable insights for accurately responding to public opinion.

Measuring Levels of Infrastructure Development and its Impact on Regional Growth - Insights from Indonesia

Infrastructure development is a linchpin for regional growth, especially in emerging economies like Indonesia. There have been many debates over the necessity of infrastructure investment over direct economic stimuli. This study delves into the critical role of infrastructure in shaping regional dynamics in Indonesia. We employ the Infrastructure Development Index (IDI), a composite metric amalgamating various infrastructure clusters into a singular value. A sample of strategic region in Indonesia are observed in this research, classified into urban and non-urban areas to highlight the different levels of impact the infrastructure development brings. Several regional development indicators such as: (a) economic growth; (b) poverty rate; (c) gini index; (d) human development index; and (e) unemployment rate is used to explore its relationship with infrastructure development. This research shows a nuanced pattern where mainly urban areas exhibiting higher IDI value and higher impact on its regional growth and development. While non-urban areas still experiencing lower impact due to the difficulties in infrastructure access and the disparity of access between the areas. It indicates the prevailing urban bias in infrastructure development, needing an improved urban-rural linkage on overall economic input-output processes. In sum, this study provides further insights into the pivotal role of infrastructure in regional development in Indonesia, offering a roadmap for informed decision-making in the pursuit of comprehensive and sustainable regional progress.

Gross regional product in Ukraine: two-dimensional analysis of regularities and territorial features

Purpose. Carrying out an analysis of panel data on individual indicators of the development of the regions of Ukraine in general and their aggregates, distinguished by territorial location and profitability in order to establish the main regularities and specific features of changes in their gross regional product. Methodology. On the basis of a sample of statistical indicators of the socio-economic development of the regions of Ukraine for the period from the beginning of the Russian-Ukrainian war (2014) to the full-scale invasion, the authors created panel series of data with the separation of regional groups according to territorial and income criteria. For each group panel series of data, random effects regression models were built in order to determine the presence of regularities and specific features of regional development in different groups. Findings. An analysis of scientific developments and practical results in the issue of determining the key factors of the formation of the gross regional product was carried out. Given the uncertainty in views on the key factors of regional development, an attempt was made to determine them using a two-dimensional analysis of panel data. For this purpose, a sample of statistical information on the main indicators of socio-economic development of each of the regions of Ukraine was formed and their grouping was carried out according to two criteria: territorial location and profitability according to the indicator of the gross regional product per capita. In general, five groups of oblasts were formed based on territorial characteristics and four groups of oblasts based on income characteristics, and a panel regression model was constructed for each of these groups, including the total set of regional panel data. The received specifications of the models made it possible to form a list of key regularities in the formation of the gross regional product in Ukraine, as well as to determine specific factors of influence on the resulting indicator for each of the groups of oblasts. Originality. On the basis of the given approach to the panel analysis of factors of regional development and, in particular, the formation of the gross regional product, based on a combination of statistical methods for grouping (clustering) regions according to various criteria and panel regression models, the hypothesis regarding the presence of common regularities of regional development in certain groups of oblasts of Ukraine was confirmed. The key factors and specific features of changes in the indicator of the gross regional product in Ukraine in general and in individual regional clusters are determined. Practical value. The possibility of practical use of the obtained results as key risk factors in the process of forming plans for the economic development of individual oblasts in the long term, as well as the application of the proposed approach to the study on key factors of the formation of other indicators of regional development.

Differentiation of Regions According to the Standard of Living of the Population

The relevance of this work is determined by the important problems of improving living standards in Russia, increasing the welfare of the population, and reducing poverty. High differentiation of the country’s regions also creates additional risks associated with forming undesirable migration flows of both population and business. Studies show that while being a leader in one area, a region may lag in other areas. It is necessary to determine how interrelated the various indicators of living standards in the subjects of the Russian Federation are. The research methods are based on the analysis of indicators of living standards of the population of Russian regions. In particular, the authors analyzed current and retrospective values, compared the values of indicators in different regions of the country, correlation and cluster analysis. The study formed integral indicators of regional development in five areas that characterize the population’s living standard to carry out calculations. The analysis results showed that there is no significant linear correlation between 22 selected private indicators of living standards in the vast majority of cases. The prospects of the study lie in further identification of ways to improve the situation, considering the specifics of the ratio of various indicators of living standards.

Взаимосвязь развития региона и функ­ционирования вузов (на примере Северо-Западного федерального округа)

The role of universities in regional socio-economic systems is pivotal. However, despite the overall trend of GRP growth, regions of Russia’s Northwestern Federal District underperform on education-related measures. These include the share of education in GRP, the percentage of individuals employed in the education sector and the number of universities and students. These trends pose a substantial challenge to regional development, especially in the context of the fourth industrial revolution and the rise of the knowledge economy. The lack of attention to the education sector may stem from the gross underestimation of its contribution to regional development. By implementing their ‘third mission’, universities exert influence on the economy, politics and socially responsible industries in their home region. A better understanding of the role of universities in regional development requires a comprehensive evaluation of their performance. This study aims to evaluate the performance of regional universities and examine its impact on regional socio-economic indicators. The paper proposes a methodology for evaluating the performance of regional universities and presents the results of its application in the regions of Russia’s Northwestern Federal District. The universities of the Arkhangelsk region and St Petersburg demonstrated the highest performance levels, whilst those of the Leningrad region were the lowest. Correlation analysis showed a significant connection between universities’ performance levels and the key socio-economic indicators of regional development. Universities’ performance levels vary significantly across Russia’s Northwestern regions. The findings may interest researchers studying regional development issues and administrators of universities prioritising the implementation of the third mission. Additionally, the results can inform decisions regarding the advancement of higher education at the regional level within the Northwestern Federal District.

Формирование методического подхода к прогнозированию устойчивого развития региона

Subject/topic. The article is devoted to the scientific problem of sustainable development of the region. Issues of sustainable development have become acutely discussed in the international community at all levels of government, in connection with environmental pollution, ecosystem depletion, and climate warming. The problems of reducing the quality of life and the economic inexpediency of regional investment projects are added to environmental problems. The subject of the study is a methodological approach to forecasting the sustainable development of the region. Goals/objectives. The purpose of the study is to develop an author's methodological approach to forecasting the sustainable development of the region, taking into account its specific features and taking into account the accumulated experience in this area. Methodology. The research methodology was a systematic approach, which used: a retrospective analysis of significant indicators of regional development, approximation, statistical methods of information processing, correlation and regression analysis. The empirical basis of the study was Rosstat data on the socio-economic development of the regions. Results. The author's methodological approach to forecasting the sustainable development of the region includes methods and techniques for building an economic model and assessing its quality. A universal algorithm for the formation of an economic model for forecasting the sustainable development of the region has been developed. The selection of independent and dependent variables - factors influencing the sustainable development of the region - has been carried out. The presented economic model of forecasting the sustainable development of the region, developed on the basis of correlation and regression analysis, reflects the peculiarities of the development of a particular subject of the Russian Federation. The model is quite reliable from the point of view of statistical estimates, which makes it possible to conclude that it describes the sustainable development of the region with high probability. Conclusions/significance. The novelty of the study lies in the development of the author's methodological approach, which includes an algorithm for the formation of such an economic model, which will identify social, environmental and economic factors affecting the sustainable development of the model region and assess the degree of their influence. As a result, it was possible to identify priority areas of activity of public authorities to achieve sustainable development of the Moscow region. Application. The proposed algorithm for forming an economic forecasting model is universal and can be applied to predict the sustainable development of other regions, taking into account the assessment of the quality of the economic model. The results obtained can be useful for substantiating management decisions of public authorities on the sustainable development of regional systems, forecasting the sustainable development of the region, taking into account its specific features affecting the development of the ecosystem.

Descriptive Analysis of Regional Development Indicators by Regency-City in West Nusa Tenggara Province

The success of a region's development is measured by several indicators such as HDI, regional inequality, economic growth and poverty levels. The aim of the research is to determine the success of regional development according to city districts in West Nusa Tenggara Province based on regional development indicators. The research method used is a qualitative research method based on quantitative data. The results of the research show that the HDI of districts and cities in West Nusa Tenggara province is in the medium category, namely 50-79. in districts and cities in West Nusa Tenggara Province is fluctuating and tends to increase in 2021

Assessment of the level of socio-economic development of the Rostov region based on the balance of regional subsystems

Subject. The conditions determining the balanced development of regional subsystems depend on multiple factors that influence the degree of regional development of a certain region. In today's world, the balanced development of regional subsystems directly affects the level of socio-economic development of the regional economy. Objectives. Justification of a methodological approach to assessing the region’s level of socio-economic development through the prism of the balance of its subsystems (social, environmental, and economic). Methodology. The research methodology is based on a systematic approach, and in this work we used the following: general scientific and special analytical methods: logical analysis, used in the study of methods for assessing the balance of regional development; structural and logical analysis, allowing to organise and clarify the terminology in the conceptual framework of the “balanced development of the region”; generalisation and grouping (while selecting statistical indicators). Economic-mathematical and economic-statistical methods were also used to analyse and assess the relation between indicators, including the method of index correlations. It allows determining the degree of one indicator influencing another and evaluating their correlation. The method of visualisation was used to clearly demonstrate the results of the study and analytical data. It helped to present the obtained results in graphical or diagrammatic form so as to better understand their meaning and make conclusions. Comparative and economic analysis was used to analyse the balance of the region's component subsystems (social, environmental, and economic). Comparative analysis allows determining the differences and similarities between these components and assess their impact on the overall development of the region. Economic analysis identifies economic factors influencing the state of the region and assesses the efficiency of its subsystems’ operation. The method of expert assessment is used to justify a set of indicators and assess the efficiency of regional subsystems’ operation (social, environmental, and economic), which allows obtaining more objective and substantiated data for the analysis and assessment of the region’s activities. Results. The obtained results indicated that the development system of the Rostov region is imperfect, and social, environmental, and economic subsystems were not balanced. The assessment of the balance of regional development showed a low level of economic activity in the region, which was 1.9 points, being below the average value (from 2 to 3 points). This indicator means that the state of the socio-economic system is unstable, therefore, a mechanism must be created to regulate the balance of the target characteristics of the system. This will serve as a fundamental line for future research. Discussion. The obtained results were compared with the conclusions of researchers who assessed the level of socio-economic development of the region in the specified time periods based on an assessment of the balance of regional subsystems and made forecasts regarding the prospects for regional development. Conclusions. The conducted analysis allowed making conclusions on the informative characteristic in the balance of regional development as a result of the influence of economic, social, and environmental factors on the region’s subsystems; the elemental composition of integral indicators for assessing the balance of regional subsystems in particular and regional development in general, including the informative side of assessing the socio-economic development of the region; and features of the methodological approach based on the scoring of regional development indicators.

International tourism as a tool for inclusive development of region

The main purpose of the article is to determine the degree of interrelation of indicators of sustainable development of regions by forming models of sustainable development of tourist destinations as an inclusive tool of international tourism and building a model of sustainable development of tourist destinations. To analyze the situation, the authors consider a model that includes East Kazakhstan, Almaty regions and the city of Almaty. The study revealed the conceptual significance and influence of 6 indicators in the system of inclusive indicators of regional development. The development of tourism in an inclusive direction is one of the main directions in the national development strategies of international organizations and developed countries. Therefore, the study of international tourism as an instrument of inclusive development of regions reveals the relevance of this work. The main tools were generalizations, comparisons, economic, statistical analysis, as well as to determine each indicator of sustainability, the arithmetic mean of the indicators for determining the degree and value of the specific gravity was used, correlation analysis, Pearson linear correlation coefficients were used to correlate the indicators of sustainable development of the Republic of Kazakhstan and the regions under consideration. The authors propose an integrated approach as a tool for integration, systematization of the management process and indicators that affect the achievement of goals. It is recommended to form a mechanism in the field of ensuring the necessary level of stability of the development of tourist regions, allowing the formation of further mechanisms.

Индикаторы регионального развития в контексте экономической безопасности региона

В числе наиболее важных задач органов региональной власти стоит стимулирование развития регионов, обеспечение экономической безопасности, анализ индикаторов развития. Анализ индикаторов регионального развития позволяет получить представление об уровне экономической безопасности региона и разработать на основе этого анализа стратегии развития, пути повышения качества жизни населения. В рамках статьи представлены теоретические аспекты использования индикаторов регионального развития, проведено сравнение индикаторов развития Республики Татарстан, Удмуртской Республики и Пензенской области (трех регионов, входящих в Приволжский федеральный округ) с применением критериев оценки экономической безопасности региона. Among the most important tasks of regional authorities is to stimulate the development of regions, ensure economic security, and analyze development indicators. The analysis of regional development indicators provides an idea of the level of economic security of the region and an opportunity to formulate of development strategies based on this analysis, ways to improve the quality of life of the population. The article presents theoretical aspects of the use of regional development indicators, compares the development indicators of the Republic of Tatarstan, the Udmurt Republic and the Penza Region (three regions included in the Volga Federal District) with the use of criteria for assessing the economic security of the region.

FinTech and corporate green innovation: An external attention perspective

This paper examines the impact of FinTech on corporate green innovation. Constructing regional FinTech development indicators from 2011 to 2021, we find that regional FinTech growth significantly contributes to corporate green innovation. According to the mechanism test, external attention has a moderating effect on the relationship between FinTech and green innovation. The more external attention, the larger the influence of regional FinTech on promoting corporate green innovation, and this mechanism is more obvious when the firms are state-owned enterprises or with excellent ESG performance. Overall, this paper provides experience references for the collaborative promotion of FinTech and sustainable development.

Strategies of socio-economic development of regions: indicators of innovative development

The article highlights the issue of the correct and legitimate assignment of indicators of innovative development in the strategies of socio-economic development of the subjects of the Russian Federation. For the purposes of the analysis, the sections devoted to the innovative development of 84 existing regional strategies are studied. It is noted that the quantitative and qualitative composition of indicators for assessing the state and development of innovative processes currently used in regional strategies cannot be called complete, rational, meeting the requirements of legislation on strategic planning and methodological recommendations of the relevant department. On the one hand, the average number of profile indicators for all strategies is 3 units, which is not enough to fully assess the state of the innovation process within the framework of strategic planning. On the other hand, the total number of indicators in all strategies exceeds 39 units, which complicates the comparative analysis of strategies, federal methodological recommendations are not always taken into account. Proposals have been developed for the process of developing regional strategies to assign indicators of regional development, bringing their structure closer to the composition of indicators used to assess innovative development in the documents of strategic planning at the federal level — the Strategy of Innovative Development of the Russian Federation and the Concept of Technological Development of the Russian Federation. It is established that the directions of innovative development provided for by these documents correspond to the theoretical scheme of the main stages of the innovation process. In this regard, the establishment of a set of indicators, based on the structure adopted in these documents, will, on the one hand, make the assessment of regional innovative development more systematic, on the other — to a greater extent link regional strategic planning documents with documents of the federal level. It is also recognized that it is necessary to improve the procedure for monitoring and controlling the development and implementation of regional strategies with a mandatory element in the form of checking the compliance of indicators adopted in the strategy with Federal State Statistics Service data.

Income inequality among European households and their biological type

Abstract In the socioeconomic development of each country, income rates constitute a measure of the economic situation. They are also the principle factor influencing social stratification. When discussing the income of European households in a regional approach, one may analyze changes, regional development indicators, and the degree to which needs are satisfied. It is underlined in the relevant literature that the differences observed across macroeconomic and microeconomic indicators are reflected in the phenomenon of income inequality, and their levels are also differentiated by the biological type of households. In view of the above, this study analyzed the financial standing of households from the spatial standpoint (selected EU countries) and considered the fractions of households isolated based on their biological composition in the light of inequality indices: Gini, Atkinson, and Theil. Inequality rates were computed using the median net equivalized income. The material examined in this study consisted of secondary data collected and published in the Eurostat database.

Perceptions and research trends in ICT-mediated educational innovation: case studies in the Latin American context

Scientific production has the development of doctoral theses as one of the indicators of regional academic development. Within the educational field, academic production should consider innovations supported by ICTs in order to be in line with scientific progress. The first objective of the study was to identify trends in doctoral theses that have investigated ICT-mediated educational innovations in the Latin American context during the period 2016-2021. For this purpose, a study will be conducted in university repositories. The second objective was to learn about the perceptions of the teachers of a HEI in relation to educational innovation. At the time of the survey, these teachers were pursuing doctoral studies or had completed them. A mixed methodology was used, applying questionnaires to the participating teachers, in this case belonging to the Philosophy Faculty of the University of Guayaquil. In order to determine research trends, 88 doctoral theses from 16 Latin American universities were reviewed. A prevalence of research based on e-learning and a perception of lag between educational innovations and doctoral production topics in the region on the part of teachers were obtained. It is proposed that Latin American doctoral programs linked to education should emphasize the development of proposals for the dissemination of innovations, in order to be in line with global advances.

A Novel Self-Organizing Map (SOM) With Data Mining Model for Formulation of Vocational Education Policies

Data mining is a process of extracting valuable and previously unknown patterns, insights, and knowledge from large datasets. data mining techniques enable the analysis of educational data to inform multi-level vocational education policies that contribute to regional sustainable development. By leveraging the power of data, policymakers can make evidence-based decisions, align vocational education with regional needs, and enhance the effectiveness and relevance of vocational education programs in promoting sustainable development. In this paper proposed an Associative Rule Kohonen SOM (AR-KS) for multi-level vocational educational policies assessment for sustainable development. Initially, the proposed AR-KS model collects relevant data, including information on vocational education programs, student performance records, regional development indicators, and policy documents. This data is then preprocessed to ensure consistency and quality. The next step involves training a Kohonen SOM using the preprocessed data. The SOM forms a topological map where each neuron represents a unique combination of policy variables and regional development factors. This map captures the multidimensional relationships among the variables and provides a visual representation of the policy space. The relationship between the patterns is computed with the associative rule-based training of SOM between variables. The analysis of the AR-KS framework allows policymakers to assess the impact of different vocational education policies on sustainable development goals. Overall, the proposed AR-KS framework offers a novel approach for assessing multi-level vocational educational policies in the context of sustainable development.

Comprehensive analysis of the effectiveness of social security regional financial models in Russia based on the DEA method

The problems of financial regulation of poverty and income inequality in Russia are widely discussed in the scientific literature. One of the important aspects in this area is efficiency assessment, which should be the basis for developing solutions that contribute to the growth of the Russian population welfare. This article develops a comprehensive methodology for assessing the effectiveness of the system of state financial regulation of poverty and income inequality In Russian regions on the basis of the Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) method and regression analysis. The information base contains the indicators of socioeconomic development of Russian regions for the period from 2017 to 2021. The analysis algorithm of the technical efficiency of budget expenditures on social policy has been developed and tested. The research novelty is the application of the DEA method taking into account the theory of regulation of income inequality by F. Bourguignon. The paper provides a comprehensive assessment of the regions’ efficiency and identifies the determinants of the efficiency indicators: the size of the regional economy and the level of income per capita; the share of poor citizens in the region; indicators of regional demographic development (fertility, mortality), etc.

Exploring the Role of Foreign Direct Investment and Environmental Regulation in Regional Ecological Efficiency in the Context of Sustainable Development

Eco-efficiency (EE) is an important indicator of regional sustainable development, which reflects the efficiency of regional economic development in using resources effectively to reduce environmental pressures, and foreign direct investment and environmental regulation are very important in promoting regional economic growth and enhancing eco-efficiency. In this paper, we chose China’s panel data from 2009 to 2021, measured China’s regional eco-efficiency using the super-efficient SBM model, and explored environmental regulation and the impact of FDI on EE in different regions using the Tobit model, with conclusions as follows: (1) The average value of national EE in China during 2009–2021 was about 0.631, which was at a low level, and there were significant differences between regions, with the highest EE in the eastern region, and the central and western regions being lower than the national average. (2) FDI at the national level had a significant promoting effect on regional EE, with an elasticity coefficient of 0.0213, which verifies that the “pollution paradise” effect does not exist at national level. FDI promoted EE in the eastern region, while not being significant in the other two regions. The impact of the environmental regulation act on EE at the national level did not pass the significance test, but the impact passed the significance test with positive coefficients for both the eastern and central regions, while in the western region it was not significant. (3) Financial investment in science and technology promoted EE in the national, east, and central regions significantly, while not being significant in the western region. The economic development level of all regions was positively correlated with EE; the impact of urbanization on EE was significantly positive in national, central, and western regions, but was not significant in the eastern region. The industrial structure of all regions was not conducive to the improvement of EE, with the western region having the most negative impact on EE. The study in this paper represents an important addition and refinement to research in related fields.

Risk Assessment of Local Government Debt: Evidence from China

The risk of local government debt has been a robust indicator of regional economic development and the smooth operation of local government. The promulgation and implementation of the new Budget Law in 2014 also reflect the determination of China to control government debt risk. Based on the DPSIR model, this paper defines the logical relationship among the driving force, pressure, debt status, influence, debt repayment ability, and local government debt risk. Combined with the entropy method, this paper analyzes the debt risk level of 30 provinces, municipalities, and autonomous regions in China from 2013 to 2019. The results show that there are apparent regional differences in the debt risk of local governments in China. The debt risk evaluation of the southwest region is higher than the average level in other regions. Overall, we show a downward and upward trend through further analysis of the internal structure and causes of local government debt risk. We offer implications for countermeasures and suggestions.

Forecasting the dynamics of indicators of economic development of Russian regions, taking into account the level of balance of innovation processes

Aim. Development of scenario forecasts of the dynamics of indicators of regional development, taking into account the level of balance of innovation processes. Tasks. To determine the factors of balanced economic and innovation development of the regions; to form a matrix of balanced innovation development; to work out a methodology for calculat­ing the integral index of balanced innovation development of the regions; to analyze the dynam­ics of the index of balanced innovation development of the signal regions of the Volga Federal District (VFD); to prepare scenario forecasts of the index of balanced innovation development of the signal regions of VFD. Methods. The author used general scientific and special research methods, taking into account their cognitive potential. The latter include correlation and regression, discriminant and clus­ter types of analysis, content analysis, graphic representation, as well as methods of individu­al and collective expert evaluations. SPSS Statistics software product was used during statisti­cal data processing. Results. The proposed methodology for calculating the index of balanced innovation development is based on the use of ideas about the internal factors of balance, which include the compliance of economic systems with the signs of stability and equilibrium, as well as the proportionality of changes in its elements. Conclusions. The methodology substantiated by the author complements the analytical tools for studying the patterns of innovation development by including the indicators of the level of balance and their impact on the dynamics of economic indicators. The obtained conclusions can be used to refine the forecasts of indicators of economic development of the regions, taking into account the state of innovation processes.

EVALUASI PEMBANGUNAN KESEHATAN DALAM UPAYA PENURUNAN ANGKA KEMATIAN IBU DAN BAYI DI KABUPATEN MALANG

Health is one of the basic human rights that must be guaranteed by the state. The success of health development is reflected in the reduction in maternal and child mortality as an indicator of successful regional development. The high maternal mortality and infant mortality rates are a strategic issue in the 2021-2026 Regional Medium-Term Development Plan (RPJMD) of Malang Regency. This study aims to describe and evaluate health development as an effort to reduce maternal and infant mortality in Malang Regency. The type of research used is descriptive with a qualitative approach. The evaluation method used is CIPP which consists of Context, Input, Process, and Product. The CIPP technique is used for sectoral development assessment, in this case the health sector for mothers and babies with a regional apparatus, namely the Health Office of Malang Regency. The data analysis used was Creswell's qualitative data analysis. The evaluation results show that there are still several obstacles in the development of maternal and infant health as an effort to reduce maternal and infant mortality in Malang Regency. These obstacles include: not optimal quality and quantity of paramedics, affordability and access to health facilities are not evenly distributed in several villages, as well as some people who prefer traditional birth attendants in providing assistance because the community considers it cheaper.