Indica Var Research Articles

Exploring the diversity of galls on Artemisia indica induced by Rhopalomyia species through morphological and transcriptome analyses.

Plant galls generated by insects have highly organized structures, providing nutrients and shelter to the insects living within them. Most research on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of gall development has focused on single galls. To understand the diversity of gall development, we examined five galls with different morphologies generated by distinct species of Rhopalomyia (gall midge; Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) on a single host plant of Artemisia indica var. maximowiczii (Asteraceae). Vasculature developed de novo within the galls, indicating active transport of nutrients between galls and the host plant. Each gall had a different pattern of vasculature and lignification, probably due to differences in the site of gall generation and the gall midge species. Transcriptome analysis indicated that photosynthetic and cell wall-related genes were down-regulated in leaf and stem galls, respectively, compared with control leaf and stem tissues, whereas genes involved in floral organ development were up-regulated in all types of galls, indicating that transformation from source to sink organs occurs during gall development. Our results help to understand the diversity of galls on a single herbaceous host plant.

Preharvest Applications of Aminoethoxivinylglycine in Mangifera indica L. “Ataulfo” Variety in Two Contrasting Environments

Mangifera indica var Ataulfo is the main variety grown in the Soconusco region of Chiapas, Mexico and faces a decrease in firmness and weight loss due to hydrothermal treatment, in addition to non-uniform ripening and consequently a decrease in price as the harvest period lengthens. In order to improve the postharvest quality of the “Ataulfo” mango fruit, preharvest applications of aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG; ReTain®, a.i. 15%) were carried out in “La Norteña” with Phaeozem soil, 1500 mm of annual precipitation, and applications of agrochemicals, and in “Santa Cecilia” with Acrisol soil, 2500 mm of annual precipitation, and without agrochemicals. The treatments were: (1) Control, (2) One application 7 days before harvest (0.1 g L−1), (3) Two applications (14 days and 7 days before harvest, 0.2 g L−1) and (4) Three applications (21, 14 and 7 days before harvest, in total 0.3 g L−1), with completely randomized design in the laboratory. The results show contrasting differences between the evaluation sites, with lower weight loss (18.4%) and 3.1% more firmness in a drier climate and higher soil calcium content. The average firmness (N) on day 14 was 18.3 and with three applications of AVG it was 22.0. The °Brix at the end of the study in the control was 11.3 and on average with AVG applications it was 14.4. Three-time applications of AVG in preharvest delayed the weight loss with an increase in the maintenance of the firmness of the fruits. The weight of the fruit epidermis was lower with AVG applications, and increased with the number of applications.

The exposure of field-grown maize seedlings to weed volatiles affects their growth and seed quality.

Plants exposed to volatiles emitted from artificially damaged conspecific or heterospecific plants exhibit increased resistance to herbivorous insects. Here, we examined whether volatiles from artificially damaged weeds affect maize growth and reproduction. Seven days after germination, maize seedlings were exposed to volatiles emitted by artificially damaged mugwort (Artemisia indica var. maximowiczii) or tall goldenrod (Solidago altissima) plants either separately, or as a mixture of the two, for seven days. Unexposed seedlings were used as controls. Treated and control seedlings were cultivated in an experimental field without any insecticides applied. Plants exposed to either of the three volatile treatments sustained significantly less damage than controls. Additionally, seedlings exposed to either goldenrod or mixed volatiles produced more leaves and tillers than control plants. Furthermore, a significant increase in the number of ears was observed in plants exposed to the volatile mixture. In all treated plants, ear sugar content was significantly higher than that in the controls. Further, we cultivated seedlings that were either exposed to the volatile mixture or unexposed, under the conventional farming method using pesticides. Similar significant differences were observed for sugar content, number of tillers, leaves, damaged leaves, and ears. Laboratory experiments were conducted to further evaluate the mechanisms involved in the improved performance of volatile-treated plants. A significant reduction in the growth of common armyworm (Mythimna separata) larvae was observed when maize plants were exposed to the volatile mixture. This treatment did not affect the amount of jasmonic acid in the seedlings, whereas salicylic acid content increased upon exposure. The characteristic differences in chemical composition of mugwort and goldenrod volatiles were confirmed and, in turn, the volatile mixture differed significantly from the volatiles of either species.

Effect of Maturity Stages and Ripening Process on the Nutritive and β-carotene of Mango [Mangifera indica (L.) var. Manjeera

Background: Mango is one of the few fruits that is used at every stage of ripeness, from the very young, immature stage to the completely mature state. The concentrations of nutrients vary across different kinds according on the environmental factors, ripening processes and maturity stages. The process of ripening, which can be carried out either naturally or artificially, brings the fruit to maturity before it is consumed or processed. The best time for mango intake with the most nutrient and phytochemical potential can be determined rationally by new facts about mango consumption. Methods: Materials utilized for the study were mangoes harvested at two maturity stages i.e. 7-9°brix and 9-11°brix and processed by three treatments methods viz, control, 100 ppm and 150 ppm ethylene treatment followed by 12 days storage. The samples were withdrawn periodically for analysis on 4th, 8th and 12th day of the storage. Nutritive composition and β-carotene analysis for the mangoes were done using the standard methods. Result: According to the findings of the proximate analysis, the ash content was greater in the control on the 12th and 4th days, respectively, in the 9-11°brix TSS and 7-9°brix TSS. Mangoes harvested at 7-9°brix TSS had the maximum protein content on the fourth day, followed by mangoes treated with 150 ppm ethylene on the twelfth day. In all the treatments, the maximum levels of crude fiber and crude fat were found on day 12th and 8th, respectively, in mangoes harvested at 7-9°brix TSS and 9-11°brix TSS. On the fourth day, mangoes treated with 100 ppm ethylene and harvested at 9-11°brix TSS had the highest carbohydrate content. On the eighth day, all treatments had the most energy. 7-9°brix TSS harvested mangoes showed good nutrient content in control samples, showing that artificial ripening treatments had a substantial impact on the nutrient composition, according to the data.

De Novo Assembly and Species-Specific Marker Development as a Useful Tool for the Identification of Scutellaria L. Species.

Scutellaria L. (family Lamiaceae) includes approximately 470 species found in most parts of the world and is commonly known as skullcaps. Scutellaria L. is a medicinal herb used as a folk remedy in Korea and East Asia, but it is difficult to identify and classify various subspecies by morphological methods. Since Scutellaria L. has not been studied genetically, to expand the knowledge of species in the genus Scutellaria L., de novo whole-genome assembly was performed in Scutellaria indica var. tsusimensis (H. Hara) Ohwi using the Illumina sequencing platform. We aimed to develop a molecular method that could be used to classify S. indica var. tsusimensis (H. Hara) Ohwi, S. indica L. and three other Scutellaria L. species. The assembly results for S. indica var. tsusimensis (H. Hara) Ohwi revealed a genome size of 318,741,328 bp and a scaffold N50 of 78,430. The assembly contained 92.08% of the conserved BUSCO core gene set and was estimated to cover 94.65% of the genome. The obtained genes were compared with previously registered Scutellaria nucleotide sequences and similar regions using the NCBI BLAST service, and a total of 279 similar nucleotide sequences were detected. By selecting the 279 similar nucleotide sequences and nine chloroplast DNA barcode genes, primers were prepared so that the size of the PCR product was 100 to 1000 bp. As a result, a species-specific primer set capable of distinguishing five species of Scutellaria L. was developed.

Revegetation in Japan overlooks geographical genetic structure of native Artemisia indica var. maximowiczii populations

Although revegetation activities are often accompanied by extensive release of translocated or cultivated individuals into natural communities, their potential effects on native populations are relatively unclear. Understanding the original genetic structures in natural habitats and how the patterns have been maintained in populations at revegetation sites is a critical first step in assessing current revegetation efforts. Artemisia indica var. maximowiczii is a native species commonly used for revegetation in Japan. We assessed the genetic and morphological variations in individuals collected from natural habitats and revegetation sites across Japan, as well as individuals have grown from two types of commercial seeds from China used for revegetation: imported seeds that originated from Chinese populations and reimported seeds that originated from Japanese populations but were cultivated in China. Genome‐wide single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) data revealed that individuals collected from natural habitats were genetically differentiated between northeastern and southwestern regions in Japan. Individuals grown from the reimported seeds were genetically similar to the northeastern populations in Japan, suggesting their original sources were areas in the northeast. Most individuals collected from revegetation sites were genetically similar to individuals from the reimported seeds, even though the revegetation sites were in southwestern Japan, suggesting that seeds derived from the northeastern populations were used for revegetation throughout Japan. Individuals grown from the imported seeds that originated from China were genetically and morphologically differentiated from native individuals in Japan. Careful consideration should be given to the extensive use of non‐local seeds for revegetation that is sourced only from northeastern Japan or foreign countries.

Metal Accumulation and Tolerance in Artemisia indica var. maximowiczii (Nakai) H. Hara. and Fallopia sachalinensis (F.Schmidt) Ronse Decr., a Naturally Growing Plant Species at Mine Site

For growing plants at mine sites, plant species that accumulate metals in tissues and are tolerant to high metal concentrations should be selected from the perspective of phytostabilization. However, the eco-chemical or elemental information of the plant species at the mine sites is limited. The purpose of this study was to identify plants that can adapt to natural growth at mine sites, via: (1) vegetation survey, (2) elemental analysis in soil and plants, and (3) detoxicant detection in plant cells. Our vegetation survey indicated that plants growing at our study site are consistent with plant species confirmed at other mine sites in previous reports. A. indica var. maximowiczii and F. sachalinensis, present at the mine site, highly accumulated Fe, Al, and Cu in the roots, indicating their metal tolerance. Furthermore, A. indica var. maximowiczii produced detoxicants such as chlorogenic acid and 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid in the roots, which exhibited high antioxidative activity that would play an important role in metal tolerance in A. indica var. maximowiczii. This study will be effective in providing fundamental information on phytostabilization at mine sites.

Radiation dose rate to Japanese cedar and plants collected from Okuma, Fukushima Prefecture.

After the 2011 Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Station (FDNPS) accident, wild populations of animals and plants living in the evacuation zone received additional ionizing radiation of both internal and external radiation doses. Morphological abnormalities of pine and fir trees near the FDNPS were reported. In order to evaluate dose-effect relationships, it is necessary to quantify the radiation doses to trees and plants. In this study, the internal and external dose rates to Japanese cedar and plants collected at three sites in Okuma, approximately 4km southwest of FDNPS were estimated applying the ERICA Assessment Tool. The activity concentrations of 134Cs and 137Cs in soils, cedar trunks, and plants were determined. The total dose rates to cedar ranged from 2.2±1.2 to 6.1±2.2 μGy h-1. These rates were within the derived consideration reference levels (DCRLs) reported by ICRP 108 as 4-40 μGy h-1 for pine trees. The highest estimate for plants was 7.1±2.7 μGy h-1, much smaller than the DCRLs reported for grasses and herbs (40-400 μGy h-1). On average, the internal radiation dose rates to cedars at the two sites accounted for 5% and 29% of the external dose rates, respectively, while the value in another site was only 0.4% for cedar. This was attributed to differences in the crown area between the three sites. The trunk diameter of cedars shows a positive correlation with the ratio of internal to external radiation dose rates. It indicates that the total dose rate to cedars is easily estimated with the soil radiocaesium inventory and trunk diameter. The internal radiation dose rate to the plant varied depending on the plant species. This variation was considerably large in plants due to the presence of two species, including Solidago altissima and Artemisia indica var. maximowiczii.

<p><strong><em>Gymnosporangium raphiolepidis</em></strong><strong> <em>comb. nov. </em>(Pucciniales) for <em>Aecidium</em> <em>raphiolepidis</em> inferred from phylogenetic evidence</strong></p>

Rhaphiolepis indica (L.) Lindl. var. umbellata (Thunb.) H. Ohashi is a rosaceous shrub distributed mainly on the seashore of warm-temperate, subtropical to tropical areas of Japan, Korea, China, Philippines, and Borneo (Nakanishi 2018). This plant has been used for greenings of parks, gardens and streets in Japan. The occurrence of an aecial stage of a rust fungus on its shoots and leaves was observed near seashore of Chiba and Ibaraki Prefectures and Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands, Japan in early summer of 2017, 2019 and 2020 (Figs. 1A, B). Morphological observations were made for the identification of this rust fungus with light microscopy by the same method reported by Kasuya & Ono (2018). Spermogonia were not found on specimens. Aecia surrounded with peridia (Figs. 1C, D) were hypophyllous, often gregarious on hypertrophied lesion along veins, rounded or elliptical, cupulate, and 100–300 μm in diam. Their margins were revoluted, lacinate, and white. Peridial cells (Fig. 1E) were firmly conjunct, 20–25 × 15–20 μm in size, outer walls were striate, and 4–7 μm thick, inner walls were verrucose, and 2–3 μm thick. Aeciospores (Fig. 1F) were angularly globose, subglobose to ellipsoid, and 15–22 × 14–20 μm (av. 19 × 17 µm; n = 30) in size. Their walls were almost hyaline, finely verrucose with big granules (appendages or pore plugs), and 1–2 μm thick. The above morphological characteristics were almost identical with descriptions of Aecidium raphiolepidis Sydow (1922: 61) by Ito (1950), Sato (1975) and Hiratsuka et al. (1992) although the size of peridial cells was a little smaller than that of their descriptions. Therefore, the rust fungus on R. indica var. umbellata was identified as A. raphiolepidis. Specimens used in this observation were deposited in the Fungal Herbarium of the Department of Botany, National Museum of Nature and Science, Tsukuba, Japan (TNS).

Transcriptomic and network analyses reveal distinct nitrate responses in light and dark in rice leaves (Oryza sativa Indica var. Panvel1)

Nitrate (N) response is modulated by light, but not understood from a genome-wide perspective. Comparative transcriptomic analyses of nitrate response in light-grown and etiolated rice leaves revealed 303 and 249 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) respectively. A majority of them were exclusive to light (270) or dark (216) condition, whereas 33 DEGs were common. The latter may constitute response to N signaling regardless of light. Functional annotation and pathway enrichment analyses of the DEGs showed that nitrate primarily modulates conserved N signaling and metabolism in light, whereas oxidation–reduction processes, pentose-phosphate shunt, starch-, sucrose- and glycerolipid-metabolisms in the dark. Differential N-regulation of these pathways by light could be attributed to the involvement of distinctive sets of transporters, transcription factors, enriched cis-acting motifs in the promoters of DEGs as well as differential modulation of N-responsive transcriptional regulatory networks in light and dark. Sub-clustering of DEGs-associated protein–protein interaction network constructed using experimentally validated interactors revealed that nitrate regulates a molecular complex consisting of nitrite reductase, ferredoxin-NADP reductase and ferredoxin. This complex is associated with flowering time, revealing a meeting point for N-regulation of N-response and N-use efficiency. Together, our results provide novel insights into distinct pathways of N-signaling in light and dark conditions.

Limonoids and tricyclic diterpenoids from Azadirachta indica and their antitumor activities.

The chemical constituents of the roots, seeds, and bark of Azadirachta indica var. siamensis were investigated, leading to the isolation of six tricyclic diterpenoids and five limonoids, including two new compounds (2, 5). The structures were elucidated based on NMR spectroscopic techniques, mass spectrometry and single-crystal X-ray diffraction as well as comparison with the literature. Moreover, the cytotoxicity activities of the isolates were evaluated. The results indicated that the compounds 1-3, 5-9 exhibited cytotoxicities against one or more cancer cell lines tested, with IC50 values in the range of 1.7-88.1μM. The mechanism of action studies indicated that the most active compound, compound 5, could induce the apoptosis of AZ521 cells. Furthermore, the Western blot analysis showed that compound 5 could reduce the expression levels of procaspases-3, -8, -9 and promote the expression of Bid and AIF.

A new species of Cenopalpus Pritchard & Baker (Acari: Tenuipalpidae) from Japan, with ontogeny of chaetotaxy and a key to the world species.

A new species of flat mite, Cenopalpus umbellatus sp. nov. (Acari: Trombidiformes: Tenuipalpidae) is described and illustrated based on females, males, deutonymphs, protonymphs and larvae. The morphological ontogeny in idiosomal and leg chaetotaxy is briefly described for all stages. Mite specimens were collected from the leaves of Rhaphiolepis indica var. umbellata Makino (Rosaceae), an evergreen shrub native to Japan. An identification key to the world species of Cenopalpus is also provided.

A classification of endangered high-THC cannabis (Cannabis sativa subsp. indica) domesticates and their wild relatives.

Two kinds of drug-type Cannabis gained layman’s terms in the 1980s. “Sativa” had origins in South Asia (India), with early historical dissemination to Southeast Asia, Africa, and the Americas. “Indica” had origins in Central Asia (Afghanistan, Pakistan, Turkestan). We have assigned unambiguous taxonomic names to these varieties, after examining morphological characters in 1100 herbarium specimens, and analyzing phytochemical and genetic data from the literature in a meta-analysis. “Sativa” and “Indica” are recognized as C. sativa subsp. indica var. indica and C. sativa subsp. indica var. afghanica, respectively. Their wild-growing relatives are C. sativa subsp. indica var. himalayensis (in South Asia), and C. sativa subsp. indica var. asperrima (in Central Asia). Natural selection initiated divergence, driven by climatic conditions in South and Central Asia. Subsequent domestication drove further phytochemical divergence. South and Central Asian domesticates can be distinguished by tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol content (THC/CBD ratios, ≥7 or <7, respectively), terpenoid profiles (absence or presence of sesquiterpene alcohols), and a suite of morphological characters. The two domesticates have undergone widespread introgressive hybridization in the past 50 years. This has obliterated differences between hybridized “Sativa” and “Indica” currently available. “Strains” alleged to represent “Sativa” and “Indica” are usually based on THC/CBD ratios of plants with undocumented hybrid backgrounds (with so-called “Indicas” often delimited simply on possession of more CBD than “Sativas”). The classification presented here circumscribes and names four taxa of Cannabis that represent critically endangered reservoirs of germplasm from which modern cannabinoid strains originated, and which are in urgent need of conservation.

Biochemical and economic studies on two hybrids of silkworm (Bombyx mori L.)

Silkworm is a typical monophagous insect and mulberry (Morus spp.) leaf is its sole feed. The current investigation aims to compare biochemical and economic characteristics of two hybrids of silkworms (B. mori. L.). Two hybrids of Bombyx mori, (L.) (H1xKKxG2xV2) and (Giza B) silkworm larvae were fed on mulberry leaves Morus indica var kanava-2 planted in the experimental farm during the spring season for biochemical and economic studies. Mulberry leaves were offered four times per day. The imported hybrid (H1xKKxG2xV2) showed higher and consistent growth rates than the native hybrid (Giza B) for all the developmental stages. It can be concluded that the selection of strong hybrids from silkworm and feeding on a good variety of Indian cultivar Morus alba var. kanava-2 imported from Indian improves the growth value of biological and economic parameters.

Phytoconstituents Investigation on the Ethanolic Extract of Azadirachta indica var. Indonesian and Philippines

In the present study, phytochemical screening of ethanolic extracts of Azadirachta indica leaves from Indonesia and the Philippines revealed the presence of different phytoconstituents. Preliminary qualitative chemical test, TLC and LC-MS were used. TLC for all the extracts showed bands in long UV 366 for presence of flavonoid, tannin, saponin, terpenoid. As a result of LC-MS analysis of ethanolic extract Azadirachta indica leaves from Indonesia and Philippines, 10 compounds from Indonesian varian and 7 compounds from the Philippines varian were detected using m/z value. In conclusion, phytochemical screening based on TLC and LC-MS/MS show diverse bioactive compounds in ethanolic extract Azadirachta indica leaves from Indonesia and the Philippines. These can be effective approach for selecting best quality of varian leaves and planting area.

The complete chloroplast genome of Scutellaria indica var. coccinea (Lamiaceae), an endemic taxon in Korea

Scutellaria indica var. coccinea (Lamiaceae) is an endemic taxon in Jeju Island, Korea. We present the complete chloroplast genome sequence of S. indica var. coccinea. Its genome size is 151,956 bp in length comprising a large single copy of 83,951 bp, a small single copy of 17,539 bp, and a pair of inverted repeats measuring 25,233 bp. The complete genome contains 115 genes including 80 protein-coding genes, four rRNAs, and 31 tRNAs. Phylogenetic analysis of this species with 10 published chloroplast genomes in Lamiaceae showed that S. insignis is a sister to S. indica var. coccinea.

Differentiation of germination characteristics in Scutellaria rubropunctata (Lamiaceae) associated with adaptation to rheophytic habitats in the subtropical Ryukyu Islands of Japan.

Seed germination characteristics of a facultative rheophyte Scutellaria rubropunctata, a perennial skullcap endemic to the subtropical Ryukyu Islands of Japan, were investigated at temperatures of 15°C, 20°C, 25°C, and 30°C. The rheophytic type of S. rubropunctata showed relatively simultaneous germination times and reached high germination rates under all temperatures tested. This characteristic may allow it to establish quickly without being influenced by temperature, giving a survival advantage in rheophytic habitats by avoiding seeds being washed away by the rising water. In contrast, the final germination rate of the terrestrial type of S. rubropunctata, as well as that of the congener S. indica var. parvifolia, was highest at 15°C and declined drastically at 30°C. Seeds of both of these plants that remained ungerminated at higher temperatures germinated soon after the temperature was changed to 15°C, indicating that the germination suppression was a state of enforced dormancy that was released after transfer to the optimal temperature. These characteristics suggest an asynchronous germination which is thought to reduce the risk of disturbance in fluctuating environments. Our study may be the first to demonstrate the differentiation of seed germination characteristics in relation to adaptations to a rheophytic habitat. Because rheophytes occupy such a harsh environment under strong selective pressure, the adaptive differentiation of seed germination characteristics may occur in many other rheophytes.

Rice qGL3/OsPPKL1 Functions with the GSK3/SHAGGY-Like Kinase OsGSK3 to Modulate Brassinosteroid Signaling.

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are steroid hormones that play essential roles in plant growth and development. We previously cloned qGL3, a major quantitative trait locus regulating grain length in rice (Oryza sativa). The O. sativa japonica var N411 has extra-large grains compared with the O. sativa indica var 9311, and the recessive qgl3 allele from N411 contributes positively to grain length. qGL3 encodes a putative protein phosphatase with Kelch-like repeat domains, an ortholog of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) brassinosteroid-insensitive1 SUPPRESSOR1 (BSU1). BSU1 positively regulates BR signaling, while overexpression of qGL3 induced BR loss-of-function phenotypes. Both qGL3N411 and qGL39311 physically interact with the rice glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3)/SHAGGY-like kinase 3 (OsGSK3), an ortholog of Arabidopsis BR INSENSITIVE2 (BIN2). qGL39311 dephosphorylates OsGSK3, but qGL3N411 lacks this activity. Knocking out OsGSK3 enhances BR signaling and induces nuclear localization of O. sativa BRASSINAZOLE RESISTANT1 (OsBZR1). Unlike the dephosphorylation of BIN2 (which leads to protein degradation) in Arabidopsis, qGL3 dephosphorylates and stabilizes OsGSK3 in rice. These results demonstrate that qGL3 suppresses BR signaling by regulating the phosphorylation and stability of OsGSK3, which modulates OsBZR1 phosphorylation and subcellular distribution. Our study clarifies the role of qGL3 in the regulation of grain length and provides insight into BR signaling, including the differences between rice and Arabidopsis.

Identification of an active miniature inverted‐repeat transposable element mJing in rice

SummaryMiniature inverted‐repeat transposable elements (MITEs) are structurally homogeneous non‐autonomous DNA transposons with high copy numbers that play important roles in genome evolution and diversification. Here, we analyzed the rice high‐tillering dwarf (htd) mutant in an advanced backcross population between cultivated and wild rice, and identified an active MITE named miniature Jing (mJing). The mJing element belongs to the PIF/Harbinger superfamily. japonica rice var. Nipponbare and indica var. 93‐11 harbor 72 and 79 mJing family members, respectively, have undergone multiple rounds of amplification bursts during the evolution of Asian cultivated rice (Oryza sativa L.). A heterologous transposition experiment in Arabidopsis thaliana indicated that the autonomous element Jing is likely to have provides the transposase needed for mJing mobilization. We identified 297 mJing insertion sites and their presence/absence polymorphism among 71 rice samples through targeted high‐throughput sequencing. The results showed that the copy number of mJing varies dramatically among Asian cultivated rice (O. sativa), its wild ancestor (O. rufipogon), and African cultivated rice (O. glaberrima) and that some mJing insertions are subject to directional selection. These findings suggest that the amplification and removal of mJing elements have played an important role in rice genome evolution and species diversification.

Evaluation of pruning waste of Mangifera indica var Harumanis cultivated in greenhouse

Mangifera indica var Harumanis is one of the exotic mango cultivated in Perlis, Malaysia. It economic importance increased in recent years due to the popularity attributed to it excellent taste, sweet and aromatic fragrance. Supply of Harumanis cannot meet market demand, mainly due to the difficulty of raising the crops and the short and uncertain harvesting seasons. The cultivation of Harumanis in greenhouse was found to be feasible to mitigate the short coming. However, the cultural practices of high density planting in greenhouse calls for regular pruning to meet the desired canopy. Regular strategic pruning produced pruning waste with potential economic value. This research was done to quantify the by-products produced by pruning from three 1/2 acre greenhouses, under the ecological and climatic of Perlis. The fresh biomass of waste collected during primary, secondary and tertiary pruning were determined. The pruning waste produced was 0.676kg per plant equivalent to 146.4kg per greenhouse during primary and secondary pruning. Estimation of fresh biomass waste produced during floral induction determine by regression was 816 kg per greenhouse with the expected total of 40.8 ton from 50 greenhouses. In view of the fact that the mango plant management practice was from the clean agricultural, the waste can be potentially utilized for green manufacturing. This was the first attempted to quantify pruning waste in mango cultivation before further utilization of pruning waste.