Indian Trans-Himalaya Research Articles

From self-sufficiency to dependence on imported food-grain in Leh District (Ladakh, Indian Trans-Himalaya)

For many centuries the population of Ladakh (Indian Trans-Himalaya) has led a self-reliant existence mainly based upon subsistence agriculture (self-sufficient in food-grainproduction), pastoralism and caravan trade. Since several decades, Leh District, a part ofLadakh, whose population is doubled from about 70000 in 1981 to 145000 in 2011, is nomore self-sufficient in food-grain production. To overcome the demand-supply imbalancea large quantity of rice and flour wheat is imported every year by traders, cooperatives andcentral government. However to be self-sufficient is an important issue for this landlocked territory which has not trade restrictions but severe constraint in transportation.Importing goods to Ladakh necessitates the shipping of goods by truck across theHimalayas, with passes as high as 5300 m, covering the distance of Manali to Leh (480 km)or Srinagar to Leh (420 km) will takes about three days. By plain is only one hour of flybut cargo airfares are very costly.The stocking of the essential items, like food grains, inLadakh, by the Jammu and Kashmir government, is an annual practice ahead of harshwinters which cuts off by road, for seven-height months, the twin districts of Leh andKargil from the rest of the country. Filling the gap between the required quantity to feedthe growing population and the quantity locally produced can be a difficult task in thishigh altitude cold desert region. Quantifying those “needs” helps developing policy andprogrammatic decision in regard to the local food security problem. In this study, the LehDistrict dependence on imported food-grain is investigated and results are presented asImport Dependency Ratio (IDR) in 2012 and the expected value in 2025.

Sequential determination of fat- and water-soluble vitamins in Rhodiola imbricata root from trans-Himalaya with rapid resolution liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry

A rapid method was developed to determine both types of vitamins in Rhodiola imbricata root for the accurate quantification of free vitamin forms. Rapid resolution liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (RRLC–MS/MS) with electrospray ionization (ESI) source operating in multiple reactions monitoring (MRM) mode was optimized for the sequential analysis of nine water-soluble vitamins (B1, B2, two B3 vitamins, B5, B6, B7, B9, and B12) and six fat-soluble vitamins (A, E, D2, D3, K1, and K2). Both types of vitamins were separated by ion-suppression reversed-phase liquid chromatography with gradient elution within 30min and detected in positive ion mode. Deviations in the intra- and inter-day precision were always below 0.6% and 0.3% for recoveries and retention time. Intra- and inter-day relative standard deviation (RSD) values of retention time for water- and fat-soluble vitamin were ranged between 0.02–0.20% and 0.01–0.15%, respectively. The mean recoveries were ranged between 88.95 and 107.07%. Sensitivity and specificity of this method allowed the limits of detection (LOD) and limits of quantitation (LOQ) of the analytes at ppb levels. The linear range was achieved for fat- and water-soluble vitamins at 100–1000ppb and 10–100ppb. Vitamin B-complex and vitamin E were detected as the principle vitamins in the root of this adaptogen which would be of great interest to develop novel foods from the Indian trans-Himalaya.

Teachers' Knowledge of and Attitude Toward Wildlife and Conservation

Abstract Environmental education (EE) has recently been included in school curricula in India to improve understanding of ecosystems, their functions, and the effect of human actions on them. The need for EE is more pronounced in Ladakh, in the Indian Trans-Himalaya, where recent development activities pose challenges for the fragile mountain ecosystem and for traditional livelihoods. Inclusion of EE in school curricula by the Jammu & Kashmir State Education Board and a conservation education program organized jointly by various government and nongovernmental agencies across Ladakh are some of the significant steps taken. As part of the Wildlife Institute of India's collaborative conservation education program, a questionnaire survey was conducted to explore Ladakh school teachers' knowledge of and attitude toward wildlife and conservation. In all, 277 government school teachers took part in the study. Results of the study highlight that teachers in Ladakh are aware of local biodiversity and have favorabl...

A genetic discontinuity in root-nodulating bacteria of cultivated pea in the Indian trans-Himalayas.

Evolutionary relationships of 120 root-nodulating bacteria isolated from the nodules of Pisum sativum cultivated at 22 different locations of the trans-Himalayan valleys of Lahaul and Spiti in the state of Himachal Pradesh of India were studied using 16S rRNA gene PCR-RFLP, ERIC-PCR, sequencing of 16S rRNA, atpD, recA, nodC and nifH genes, carbon-source utilization pattern (BIOLOG™), and whole-cell fatty acid profiling. The results demonstrated that all isolates belonged to Rhizobium leguminosarum symbiovar viciae (Rlv). Isolates from the two valleys were clearly separated on the basis of ERIC fingerprints, carbon-source utilization pattern, and whole-cell fatty acid methyl esters. Phylogenetic analysis of atpD, recA, nodC and nifH genes revealed a common Rlv sublineage in Spiti valley. Lahaul valley isolates were represented by three sequence types of atpD and recA genes, and four sequence types of nodC and nifH genes. Genotypes from the two valleys were completely distinct, except for two Lahaul isolates that shared nodC and nifH sequences with Spiti isolates but were otherwise more similar to other Lahaul isolates. Isolates from the two highest Spiti valley sites (above 4000 m) had a distinctive whole-cell fatty acid profile. Spiti valley isolates are closely related to Rlv sublineages from Xinjiang and Shanxi provinces in China, while Lahaul valley isolates resemble cosmopolitan strains of the western world. The high mountain pass between these valleys represents a boundary between two distinct microbial populations.

Solubilization of insoluble inorganic phosphates by a novel temperature-, pH-, and salt-tolerant yeast, Rhodotorula sp. PS4, isolated from seabuckthorn rhizosphere, growing in cold desert of Ladakh, India

The study was aimed to develop biofertilizer solubilizing inorganic phosphates for region experiencing temperature, pH and salt stressed conditions. A yeast strain PS4, which was temperature-, pH- and salt-tolerant and capable of solubilizing insoluble inorganic phosphate was isolated from rhizosphere of seabuckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.), growing in the Indian Trans-Himalaya. Based on morphological, biochemical, whole cell FAME analysis and molecular characterization, strain PS4 was identified as Rhodotorula sp. The soluble phosphate production under optimal conditions at pH 7 and 30°C was 278.3 mg l−1. Strain PS4 showed ability to solubilize insoluble phosphate under different stress conditions viz. 5–40°C temperature, 1–5% salt concentration and 3–11 pH range. Soluble phosphate production from Ca3(PO4)2 under combined stress conditions at extreme values of temperature, pH and salt concentration showed 81.6–83.2% reduction as compare to optimal conditions after 5 days incubation. The strain solubilize Ca3(PO4)2 to a great extent than FePO4 and AlPO4. The solubilization of insoluble phosphate was associated with drop in pH of the culture media. Inoculation of tomato seedling with the strain increased fruit yield, roots and shoot length. Rhodotorula sp. PS4 with phosphate-solubilizing ability under stress conditions appeared to be attractive for exploring their plant growth-promoting activity towards the development of microbial inoculants in stressed region.

Scale and selection of habitat and resources: Tibetan argali (Ovis ammon hodgsoni) in high-altitude rangelands

Processes of habitat selection occur at multiple spatiotemporal scales, where large-scale selection is often determined by predation risk and landscape features, and finer scale selection by resource abundance and quality. To determine whether this hierarchy exists in relatively homogenous systems, we investigated patterns of habitat (landscape topography) and resource (feeding patch and plant group) selection by a medium-sized ungulate, the Tibetan argali ( Ovis ammon hodgsoni Blyth, 1840), in the high-altitude rangelands of the Indian Trans-Himalaya. We ran ecological niche factor analyses to explore habitat selection, bias-reduced logistic regression to analyze the selection of feeding patches, fuzzy correspondence analysis for vegetation categories, and microhistological analyses for the selection of plant groups. For springs and summers of 2005–2007, argali preferred an intermediate range of altitude, slope, and forage abundance. Selection of feeding patch was mainly determined by forage quality, not biomass, selecting graminoids and forbs, in particular. The avoidance of habitat with high forage abundance could indicate a trade-off between forage quality and quantity; a pattern consistent at the feeding-patch scale. Our results provide evidence that the hierarchical pattern of habitat selection probably also occurs in relatively homogeneous systems.

Using habitat suitability models to sample rare species in high-altitude ecosystems: a case study with Tibetan argali

Models of the distribution of rare and endangered species are important tools for their monitoring and management. Presence data used to build up distribution models can be based on simple random sampling, but this for patchy distributed species results in small number of presences and therefore low precision. Convenience sampling, either based on easily accessible units or a priori knowledge of the species habitat but with no known probability of sampling each unit, is likely to result in biased estimates. Stratified random sampling, with strata defined using habitat suitability models [estimated in the resource selection functions (RSFs) framework] is a promising approach for improving the precision of model parameters. We used this approach to sample the Tibetan argali (Ovis ammon hodgsoni) in Indian Transhimalaya in order to estimate their distribution and to test if it can lead to a significant reduction in survey effort compared to random sampling. We first used an initial sample of argali feeding sites in 2005 and 2006 based on a priori selected vantage points and survey transects. This initial sample was used to build up an initial distribution model. The spatial predictions based on estimated RSFs were then used to define three strata of the study area. The strata were randomly sampled in 2007. As expected, much more presences per hour were obtained in the high quality strata compared to the low quality strata—1.33 obs/h vs. 0.080/h. Furthermore the best models selected on the basis of the prospective sample differed from those using the first a priori sample, suggesting bias in the initial sampling effort. The method therefore has significant implications for decreasing sampling effort in terms of sampling time in the field, especially when dealing with rare species, and removing initial sampling bias.

Medicinal plants of the high altitude cold desert in India: Diversity, distribution and traditional uses

Distribution patterns and traditional uses of medicinal plant species were studied in the high-altitude cold desert of India (Indian trans-Himalaya), with the help of indigenous medical practitioners (locally called amchis). Unstructured and semi-structured questionnaire surveys were conducted with 83 amchis living in Ladakh and Lahaul-Spiti. To study the distribution pattern of medicinal plants, 70 sub-localities were surveyed and grouped into 8 broad localities. A total of 335 medicinal plant species were recorded, of which 45 were rare and endangered. The main plant part used in preparing medicine was the leaf, followed by the flower, root, shoot, seed and fruit. The distribution pattern of the medicinal plants was, generally, localized because most (27%) were restricted to marshy and moist areas, followed by dry scrub (13%), rocks (12%), boulders (10%) and undulating land or alpine meadows (9%). Within the study area, the highest numbers of rare and medicinal plants were found in the Pin valley, followed by the Zanskar valley and the Leh valley. Factors related to conservation and management of medicinal plants in the cold desert of India are discussed.

Diversity, Risk Mediation, and Change in a Trans-Himalayan Agropastoral System

We describe the diversity and dynamism of social, agricultural, and livestock husbandry practices in a traditional mountain production system in the Indian Trans-Himalaya. These are interpreted in the context of their role in mediating environmental risk. The production system is a little known Buddhist agropastoral system in the high altitude Spiti Valley (agriculture up to 4450 m, livestock grazing 4900 m, total area ca. 12,000 km2) in the Himalayan state of Himachal Pradesh. The local population (ca. 10,000) belongs to one of the three Buddhist sects Gelukpa, Shakyapa, or Ningmapa, is related by blood, and shares a common Tibetan dialect. Family is the basic unit of production, though families are highly dependent upon the community to meet production goals. A village council appointed on rotation and functioning democratically is responsible for village administration, and is the arbiter of all decision-making pertaining to collective work and settling disputes. The council ensures equal access of families to common resources, as well as equitable distribution of responsibilities among them. Systems of primogeniture, celibacy, and polygamy seem to have prevented the fragmentation of land holdings and limited population growth. The diversity of practices in the agropastoral system seems adapted to the risk-prone mountainous environment, the risks being climatic, geological, and those posed by wildlife. The system seems to aim at maximizing production while mediating environmental risk. The production system comes forth as highly dynamic, characterized by continuous innovation and experimentation. Recent changes in the production system are in response to both changes in local conditions as well as increasing integration of the local economy with regional markets, though many aspects of the traditional lifestyle continue to be maintained.

Overstocking in the trans-Himalayan rangelands of India

High livestock densities in rangelands can result in reduced animal production due either to overgrazing or reduced per caput food availability, yet evidence for reduced animal production due to overstocking is scarce. Here simple animal production models establish the occurrence of overstocking in a traditional agropastoral system in the Spiti Valley of the Indian Trans-Himalaya. Empirical data show that fecundity of adult female livestock is related to total livestock biomass density (S) as a negative linear function of S. Total herd production is modelled as a quadratic function of S, thereby calculating an optimum livestock biomass density (Sop), at which total herd production is maximized. A sample of 40 villages showed that over 83% of Spiti's rangelands may be overstocked with values of S > Sop. Overstocking seems to be a classic case of the tragedy of the commons, as livestock is individually owned while the land is communally grazed. Recent socio-economic changes have probably contributed to high levels of overstocking. Even areas within wildlife reserves are overstocked. Conservation management needs to focus on creation of grazing free areas and management of livestock densities.

Status and conservation of rare and endangered medicinal plants in the Indian trans-Himalaya

I studied the distribution pattern, population structure and conservation status of rare and endangered medicinal plant species in Spiti sub-division of Himachal Pradesh in the Indian trans-Himalaya. The entire study area was stratified into six zones based on geomorphological and phytogeographical variations. In each zone different habitat types for rare and endangered species were identified and sampled using quadrats. A total of 23 rare and endangered medicinal plants were found in Spiti, distributed over 10 major habitat types. All the rare and endangered medicinal plants were localised and found in patches. The patch size for different species varied greatly from 1 to 20,000 m 2. There were large differences in the number of rare and endangered medicinal plant species within different zones of Spiti. More species of rare and endangered medicinal plants occurred close to the Great Himalayan range in the southern part of the study area. The highest mean density was estimated for Picrorhiza kurrooa followed by Saussurea gnaphaloides. The results are discussed in the light of rare and endangered medicinal plants conservation with the strong recommendation of the establishment of medicinal plants conservation areas in this part of trans-Himalaya.

Livestock depredation by large carnivores in the Indian trans-Himalaya: conflict perceptions and conservation prospects

Livestock depredation by the snow leopard, Uncia uncia, and the wolf, Canis lupus, has resulted in a human-wildlife conflict that hinders the conservation of these globally-threatened species throughout their range. This paper analyses the alleged economic loss due to livestock depredation by these carnivores, and the retaliatory responses of an agro-pastoral community around Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary in the Indian trans-Himalaya. The three villages studied (80 households) attributed a total of 189 livestock deaths (18% of the livestock holding) over a period of 18 months to wild predators, and this would amount to a loss per household equivalent to half the average annual per capita income. The financial compensation received by the villagers from the Government amounted to 3% of the perceived annual loss. Recent intensification of the conflict seems related to a 37.7% increase in livestock holding in the last decade. Villagers have been killing the wolf, though apparently not the snow leopard. A self-financed compensation scheme, and modification of existing livestock pens are suggested as area-specific short-term measures to reduce the conflict. The need to address the problem of increasing livestock holding in the long run is emphasized.

Distribution and Encounter Rates of Large Herbivores in Chang Chenmo and Daulat Beg Oldi, Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir, India

The Ladakh region of the Indian Trans-Himalaya supports twelve large herbivores, including eight mountain ungulates. Many of the species like the Tibetan antelope are highly endangered with rapidly declining populations. Yet there is little information on their status and distributions, especially in remote, inaccessible areas. We report on the status and distribution of five large herbivores in the Chang Chenmo and the Daulat Beg Oldi (DBO) areas of Ladakh, which remain the least known areas in Ladakh in terms of wildlife populations because they are very remote and politically highly sensitive. During the surveys, we observed 246 Tibetan antelopes and 40 blue sheep in DBO. In Chang Chenmo we observed 40 Tibetan antelopes, 2 wild yaks, 42 Tibetan argalis, 67 Tibetan wild asses and 30 blue sheep. In DBO, the encounter rate was higher for the Tibetan antelope (mean = 2.54, SE = 0.63) than the blue sheep (mean = 0.29, SE = 0.19). In Chang Chenmo the highest encounter rate was for the Tibetan wild ass (mean = 0.48, SE = 0.26), whereas the wild yak had the lowest (mean = 0.02, SE = 0.01). Since Chang Cehnmo and DBO are important areas for rare species in India, and are located right at the border with China, there is an urgent need for international collaboration to protect these threatened animals.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/on.v9i1.5734