Santalum Album Research Articles

Effect of spacing on the growth of sandalwood (Santalum album L.) trees under farm conditions in Tamil Nadu, India

This study compared the performance of Santalum album L. planted at five spacing treatments (2.4 X 2.4 m, 3.0 X 3.0 m, 3.6 X 3.6 m, 4.6 X 4.6 m, and 5.5 X 5.5 m) under farm condition in Tamil Nadu, India and assessed the impact of these planting densities on growth and volume of wood production. In order to determine their response, the biometric attributes of sandal such as height (m), diameter at breast height (m) and volume (m3) of trees were measured. To assess the periodical growth variation, biometrics were studied at the level of three age classes (0-5 years, 5-10 years and 10-15 years) and biometrics were compared among the age classes. The results revealed that the spacing treatments of 3.0 X 3.0 m and 3.6 X 3.6 m were found better for planting of Santalum album with more growth biometrics and maximum volume of wood followed by 4.6 X 4.6 m, 5.5 X 5.5 m and 2.4 X 2.4 m spacing. Based on the study results, 3.0 X 3.0 m and 3.6 X 3.6 m spacing can be recommended as suitable spacing for cultivating sandal on farmlands.

Variability for Oil, α- and β-santalol Content in Indian Sandalwood (<i>Santalum album</i> L.) from Marayoor Sandalwood Reserve – The Only Natural Population in India

Indian Sandalwood ( Santalum album L.) is categorized as 'vulnerable' by International Union for Conservation of Nature. Marayoor Sandalwood reserve in the Kerala state is the only natural sandalwood reserve in India and perhaps in the world having substantial Santalum album (Indian Sandalwood) trees. Variation for oil and its major constituents i.e., α- and β- santalol of the Sandalwood trees in this reserve has been attempted for the first time. Core samples were collected from trees of different girth size ranging from 30 to 140 cm. The sandalwood oil was extracted from the core samples using solvent extraction method. Oil content ranged from 1.3% to 6.2%. From the extracted oil, α- and β- santalol content was estimated by using Gas chromatography/Mass spectrometry. The α- and β- santalol content varied from 45.17 to 55% and 18.3 to 27% (w/w) respectively. There was no relationship between tree girth, oil, and santalols content. Considerable variation exists in the natural population for oil content and sufficient care has to be taken while selecting superior genotypes.

Grafting compatibility between variants of sandalwood (Santalum album Linn.) in Gunungkidul, Indonesia

The declining number of adult individuals led to changes in the mating system of certain sandalwood (Santalum album Linn.) populations previously dominated by outcrossing. The genetic quality of the produced seeds and reproduction success decreased due to inbreeding. Therefore, vegetative propagation by grafting is an alternative method to support sandalwood conservation and development. This study aimed to determine the compatibility of rootstocks and scion for vegetative propagation by top cleft grafting on sandalwood variants found in Petir and Wanagama landraces, Gunungkidul Regency, Indonesia. Based on the availability of materials, we used Red Big Flower (RBF), Red Small Flower (RSF), and Yellow Small Flower (YSF) variants, with RBF and RSF as rootstocks and RBF, RSF, and YSF as scions. All six combinations of rootstock-scion indicated compatibility with various results. The average grafting survival was 35.8%, and the RBF-YSF combination showed the highest survival (90%). However, the RSF-YSF combination produced leaves on the scion at most (21 blades). The propagation method of grafting can be applied for the conservation and deployment of sandalwood variants. In tree improvement, grafting is essential to set up the stool plant in a hedge orchard, copy the genetic materials for the clonal test and clonal seed orchard.

Diagnosis of Phytoplasma Associated with the Sandalwood Spike Disease

Sandalwood spike disease (SSD) is a serious disease of Indian sandal tree (Santalum album). The disease is caused by a Candidatus Phytoplasma asteris strain of subgroup 16SrI-B. The disease is naturally spread through leafhopper and root-grafting. The infected plants take long time to express disease symptoms and eventually die. The diagnostic disease symptom of SSD is crowded small chlorotic leaves on stiff twigs that has spike like appearance. There are various biological, histopathological, electron microscopic and molecular methods available for the detection and identification of phytoplasma. Biological and histopathological tests are time consuming and ambiguous. Serological test like ELISA and molecular test like PCR are more versatile and accurate for the detection of phytoplasma. Application of various molecular techniques like nested PCR, RFLP and sequence analysis of 16S ribosomal RNA led to identify the SSD phytoplasma isolates as a member of 16SrI-B and 16SrXI-B phytoplasma subgroups. In this chapter, various diagnostic methods utilised for the detection and identification of SSD phytoplasma are summarised.

Application of Liquid Organic Fertilizer on Sandalwood (Santalum album L.) invitro from East Nusa Tenggara

Sandalwood (Santalum album L.) which grows in East Nusa Tenggara is an endemic plant known as hau meni. Sandalwood is used as a base for carving and perfume containing essential oils that have a distinctive aroma. The superiority that is owned causes the selling price is very expensive. This causes exploitation which results in a diminishing number of Sandalwood trees. Efforts to replant have been carried out through seedlings and nurseries but the success rate is still low. Efforts through invitro are expected to help conserve this plant. To determine the effect of giving Liquid Organic Fertilizer (LOF) on the growth of Sandalwood and the best concentration in promote germination. The study was conducted by adding different types of LOF with concentration variation. The addition of Nasa with a concentration of 2 mL which is the optimal concentration in promote the germination with the response at 14 Days After Planting (DAP) on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium while on the addition of lontar the concentration of 2 mL shows the response of the appearance of plumula. The addition of base type LOF on MS medium affected 82% germination percentage while lontar type LOF stimulated vegetative growth of Sandalwood plants.

Seeds as Potential Sources of Phenolic Compounds and Minerals for the Indian Population.

Seeds are major sources of nutrients and bioactive compounds for human beings. In this work, the chemical composition and physicochemical properties of 155 Indian seeds (belonging to 49 families) are reported. Moisture and ash were measured with reference protocols from AOAC; total polyphenols and flavonoids were measured with spectrophotometric methods after extraction with organic solvents, and mineral elements were determined by X-ray fluorescence spectrophotometry. Total phenolic compounds, flavonoids and mineral contents (Al, Ba, Ca, Cl, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, P, Rb, S, Sr, Ti, V and Zn) were found to vary in the ranges 182–5000, 110–4465 and 687–7904 mg/100 g (DW), respectively. Noticeably, polyphenol contents higher than 2750 mg/100 g were observed in 18 seeds. In addition, mineral contents >5000 mg/100 g were detected in the seeds from Cuminum cyminum, Foeniculum vulgare, Commiphora wightii, Parkia javanica, Putranjiva roxburghii, Santalum album and Strychnos potatorum. Botanical and taxonomical variations in the proximate characteristics of the examined seeds are also discussed.

Network Pharmacology Analysis and Experimental Verification Strategies Reveal the Action Mechanism of Danshen Decoction in Treating Ischemic Cardiomyopathy.

Background Danshen Decoction comprises Salvia miltiorrhiza, Santalum album, and Amomum villosum. It can promote blood circulation and remove blood stasis, and is commonly used in the treatment of gastric and duodenal ulcers, coronary heart disease, angina pectoris, etc. This research is based on network pharmacology and is experimentally verified to explore the potential mechanism of Danshen Decoction in the treatment of ischemic cardiomyopathy (ICM). Methods The effective components and targets of Danshen Decoction were firstly extracted from Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology (TCMSP) Database and Analysis Platform, the drug-component-target-disease network was then constructed, the protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed, the Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis was carried out, and the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway was analyzed in order to find the potential active components and therapeutic mechanisms. Finally, the in vitro hypoxia/reoxygenation model in H9c2 cells was established to verify the predicted active components and therapeutic mechanisms. Results The results showed that Danshen Decoction has 67 potential active components and 109 therapeutic targets in treating ICM. These targets were rich in a variety of gene functions and different signaling pathways; the main gene targets include TP53, c-Jun, and Akt1. Go enrichment analysis showed that response to drug, membrane raft, and G protein-coupled amine receiver activity rank first in each process, and the main signaling pathways include PI3K-Akt signaling pathway. Through molecular docking and experimental verification of the major active components and core therapeutic targets, the active components of Danshen Decoction demonstrated an ability to reduce the cell damage caused by hypoxia/reoxygenation in H9c2 cells by regulating the core therapeutic target including Akt1, c-Jun, and TP53. Conclusion Danshen Decoction has the effect of treating ICM in multiple ways, which is consistent with the results of network pharmacology. This laid a foundation for further study in exploring the active principles and pharmacological mechanism of Danshen Decoction.

Documentation on the Floral Diversity of Rajagiri College of Social Sciences Campus, Kalamassery, Kerala

The present study was undertaken to document the diversity of flora in the campus of Rajagiri College of Social Sciences, Kalamassery, Ernakulam district, Kerala. The documentation of floral diversity helps to recognize the overall ecological conditions and gives profound understanding of the economic, medicinal and traditional importance of plant diversity. The campus flora of Rajagiri College of Social Sciences, Kalamassery is not yet documented, and the present paper deals with the floral diversity of the campus. A total of 164 plant species represented by 141 genera belonging to 62 different families were recorded, of which three species were represented by gymnosperms. The Asteraceae, Leguminosae, Arecaceae, Asparagaceae and Euphorbiaceae were dominant families of floristic composition of the study region. Eight threatened plant species are present in the campus namely, L. f. (Leguminosae), (L.) Jacq. Pterocarpus santalinus Swietenia mahagoni (Meliaceae), (L.) Merr. and L. M. Perry (Myrtaceae), D. Don (Bignoniaceae), Syzygium malaccense Jacaranda mimosifolia Santalum album L. (Santalaceae), (H. Wendl.) Beentje and J. Dransf. (Arecaceae), Roxb. (Leguminosae) and Dypsis lutescens Dalbergia latifolia Asparagus racemosus Willd. (Asparagaceae).

Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services of Trees Outside Forests: A Case Study from Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar, Central India

Alike forests, trees outside forest play a critical role in providing ecosystem services as well as biodiversity conservation. They include all those trees which has attained 10 cm or more diameters at breast height (DBH), available on land which is not notified as forest or other wooded land. Trees outside forest especially roadside trees have attracted little attention for their role in providing ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation due to their discontinuous occurrence and lack of documentation. The present study was conducted in Dr. Harisingh Gour University campus to document floristic diversity and their potential contribution towards ecosystem services. All the trees and shrubs having 10 cm or more DBH present along roads were documented and categorized for nativity, uses and ecosystem services. A total of 1252 individuals belonging to 85 species, 73 genera and 38 families were recorded. The habitat inhabits , a vulnerable species Santalum albumand an endangered species escaped from natural and semi-natural forests indicating suitable habitat for them. The Cordia macleodii documented species were dominated by native flora (65 sp.) and 20 non-native species. Most of the species were food providing, ethnomedicinal, fodder, fuel wood and timber species. Further, 34 species including 4 religious species ( , , Aegle marmelos Ficus religiosaPhyllanthus emblica Santalum album and ) were found to provide cultural services.

Identification of suitable host for sandalwood cultivation in Northern dry zone of Karnataka

Sandalwood (Santalum album L.) is a hemiparasite unable to absorb the required nutrients directly from the soil. Therefore, it needs a suitable host for successful cultivation. The effect of hosts on the growth and development of sandalwood was studied in an eleven-year-old plantation in the Northern dry zone of Karnataka. The sandalwood trees grown with Prosopis (Prosopis juliflora L.) exhibited better growth in terms of tree height (6.58 m), canopy spread (4.64 m), canopy volume (48.60 m3), stem girth (40.70 cm), main stem volume (36.79 dm3) and its annual increment (16.39%). They were also summer hardy and recorded higher chlorophyll, free proline, and soluble sugar in leaves. The summer leafiness of sandalwood was associated with the free proline content in its leaf (r = 0.927), which was in turn correlated with the free proline content in leaves of their respective hosts (r = 0.899). The sandalwood trees with Prosopis also exhibited signs of early heartwood development, thus making Prosopis a suitable host for the commercial cultivation of sandalwood in hot semi-arid conditions.

Physical Evaluation and Hedonic Test of Sandalwood Oil (Santalum album L.) Cream as an Anti-Inflammatory

Inflammation is the body's defense response used to fight agents that cause cell damage in an organism. One source of natural ingredients whose content can be developed as an anti-inflammatory with low side effects is Sandalwood (Santalum album L.). The pharmaceutical preparation chosen for the development of Sandalwood oil as an anti-inflammatory is a cream, because of its several advantages, namely, it is more convenient, practical, easy to use, not sticky, and easy to wash with water so it is easy to clean. The purpose of this study was to determine the physical quality of sandalwood oil cream using two variant concentrations of surfactant sodium lauryl sulfate 1.5% (F1) and 2.5% (F2) as an emulsifying agent, as well as to determine consumer perceptions of sandalwood oil cream. In ensuring pharmaceutical quality, the preparations made must meet several physical parameters including organoleptic tests, homogeneity tests, pH tests, mechanical stability tests, dispersibility tests, and hedonic tests. To find out whether there is a significant difference between F1 and F2, statistical data processing of cream physical quality was performed using SPSS 20 with an unpaired T-test if the data were normally distributed, and if the data were not normally distributed, the Mann-Whitney test was performed. The results of the research that has been carried out show that overall the two cream formulas have good physical quality and are quite liked by the panelists. From the results of the organoleptic test, homogeneity test, and pH test, it is known that F1 and F2 have no difference, and the results of the dispersion test and hedonic test show that there is no significant difference between F1 and F2.

Impact of change in micro climatic factors forincidence and prevalence of powdery mildew diseasein Indian Sandalwood (Santalum album L.)

The summers are hot, while winters are getting cool at Bangalore, Karnataka, probably the possible effects of climate change. The changing climatic conditions have exaggerated the circumstances due to change in distribution pattern, epidemic development and new pathotypes of pest/disease (Yanez-Lopez 2012). The effect of local micro climatic conditions at IWST plays a major role in development of disease and rapid spread of inoculum. Some of the abiotic factors assessed during the study were temperature (t0), relative humidity (RH) and cloud dynamics (CD) determines the incidence of disease. The inoculum tends to manifold in larger quantity under conducive abiotic factor (t0, RH and CD) with a susceptible host (stress plants) and virulent pathogen. The prevailing management strategies for controlling of powdery mildew of S. album using either copper or sulphur fungicide were not found to be effective, which indicates the probability of resistance developed in pathogen. Therefore impact of climate change on plant disease is quiet an alarming situation, where the situation indirectly tells about the evolution of pathogen. It is high time to understand how climate change affects plant disease and host, therefore disease management against emerging and re-emerging pathogens through collaborative multi-facet discipline approaches may be better strategies under climate change

Inhibiting Effect of Natural Plant Leaves Extract Used as Green Corrosion Inhibitor for Mild Steel in Acidic Media

Abstract: Inhibition of corrosion of mild steel in hydrochloric acid by natural plant leaves extract of of Bahunia Varigata (Aapta), Azadirachta Indica (Neem), Pongamia Pinnata (Karanj), Santalum Album (Sandal Wood) and Astonia Scholaris (Saptparni) has studied using weight loss measurement. It was, found that the leaves extract act as a good corrosion inhibitor for mild steel in all concentrations of the extract. The inhibition action depends on the concentration of the leaves extract in the acid solution. Results for weight loss measurements indicate that inhibition efficiency increase with increasing inhibitor concentration. Extract of natural plants is one of the most important metallic corrosion inhibitors. They are readily available, nontoxic, environmentally friendly, biodegradable, highly efficient, and renewable. Several organic compounds with heteroatom such as N, O, S and P present in the plant extracts are, adsorbed directly onto the metals surface through polar atoms and thereby forming the protective layer. Plants represent a class of interesting source of compounds currently being, explored for use in metal corrosion protection in most systems, as possible replacement of toxic synthetic inhibitors. This paper discusses the different types of natural green plant leaves extract inhibitors for corrosion control of mild steel in acid medium. Keywords: Corrosion, Inhibition, carbon steel, Weight loss and natural plant leaves extract.

Clinical Evaluation of Indian Sandalwood Oil and Its Protective Effect on the Skin against the Detrimental Effect of Exposome

The skin is constantly subject to external stressors (the exposome), including particulate matter and blue light. These can penetrate the deeper layers of the skin, inducing the release of free radicals and triggering an inflammatory cascade of events contributing to cutaneous aging and exacerbating inflammatory skin conditions. This study demonstrates the clinical efficacy of Indian sandalwood oil of varying concentrations against oxidative stress induced by urban dust and blue light. Twenty-two healthy human subjects entered and completed the study of 11 days. Test products containing 0.1%, 1% and 10% of sandalwood oil, as well as a placebo and a comparator control (α-tocopherol), were applied on the different investigational zones of the upper back of each subject. Exposure ensued on day 7, using a controlled pollution exposure system (CPES) and blue light at a wavelength of 412 nm. Sebum was sampled on each investigational zone following the last exposure. The level of squalene monohydroperoxide (SQOOH) was the primary endpoint. A dose-dependent decrease in SQOOH on the zones treated with 10%, 1% and 0.1% of the sandalwood oil formulation compared to the untreated zones was observed. The zone treated with the 10% sandalwood-containing formula demonstrated the highest protective efficacy with the lowest amount of SQOOH. Increasing the concentration of the sandalwood oil increased its protective antioxidant activity. The results collected from this intraindividual comparative is the first clinical trial to suggest that sandalwood oil at a concentration between 1% and 10% protects the skin against the oxidative stress induced by urban dust and blue light exposure.

Antioxidant and Enzymes Inhibitory Activities of Leaf Extracts of Plant Species Traditionally Used for Medicinal and Spiritual Purposes in Nepal

ABSTRACT The flavonoids and phenolics contents, antioxidant potential, and enzymes (α-amylase, lipase, elastase, tyrosinase, acetylcholinesterase, and butyrylcholinesterase) inhibition potential of leaf extracts from Elaeocarpus sphaericus, Santalum album, Pterocarpus santalinus, and Ziziphus budhensis collected from Ramechhap District of Nepal were evaluated. DPPH assay was used to determine the antioxidant potential, and the DNSA method was used to examine α-amylase inhibition activity. P-NPB, L-DOPA, AAAPVN, acetylthiocholine iodide, and butyrylthiocholine iodide were used as respective substrates for the determination of lipase, tyrosinase, elastase, acetylcholinesterase, and butyrylcholinesterase inhibition activities. The crude extract of P. santalinus showed inhibitory potential against all enzymes, whereas E. sphaericus, S. album, and Z. budhensis extracts showed moderate inhibition activity. However, S. album did not inhibit lipase, elastase, and tyrosinase.

Quantification of minor, trace and toxic elements in stems of Santalum album (L.), Mangiferra indica (L.) and Tinospora cordifolia by instrumental neutron activation analysis

Stems of Santalum album (Sandalwood), Mangiferra indica (Mango wood), and Tinospora cordifolia (Giloy) are widely used in the preparation of herbal medicines and formulations in the traditional Indian health care system called Ayurveda. These were analyzed for 4 minor (K, Ca, Cl, Mg) and 13 traces (As, Ce, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, La, Mn, Na, Se, V, and Zn) including toxic elements by instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA). Samples in powder form along with reference materials (NIST SRM 1547 and INCT MPH-2) as comparators were irradiated for 1 min/6 h in Dhruva/CIRUS reactors at BARC, Mumbai. Gamma activity was measured by high-resolution gamma-ray spectrometry. In general, K, Ca, Fe, Mn, and Zn contents are very high in all the samples but Santalum album, widely used as a perfume, is more enriched in K, Ca, Cr, Zn, and Se. The concentration of Ca is always high as a major constituent (> 10 mg/g) in all the stem/bark of plant species. A strong inverse correlation (R2 = 0.9999) was observed between Fe and Zn in all three samples and that may be useful in drug manufacturing.

Co-Treatment with the Herbal Medicine SIP3 and Donepezil Improves Memory and Depression in the Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a lethal, progressive neurodegenerative disorder that has been linked to a deficiency of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Currently, many acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, such as donepezil, are widely used for the treatment of AD. On the other hand, the efficacy of long-term donepezil use is limited. SIP3, a mixture of three herbal extracts from Santalum album, Illicium verum, and Polygala tenuifolia, is a new formula derived from traditional Korean herbal medicine. We assessed the synergistic effect of SIP3 and donepezil co-treatment on symptoms of AD using APP/PS1 transgenic mice. In this study, a Drosophila AD model and SH-SY5Y clles were used to assess the toxicity of SIP3, and APPswe/PS1dE9 (APP/PS1) transgenic mice were used to evaluate the cognitive-behavioral and depression-like behavior effect of SIP3 and donepezil co-treatment on symptoms of AD. The cerebral cortex or hippocampus transcriptomes were analyzed by RNA sequencing and miRNA to investigate the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying the positive effects of SIP3 on AD. In the passive avoidance test (PAT) and Morris water maze (MWM) test, the combination of SIP3 and donepezil improved the learning capabilities and memory of APP/PS1 mice in the mid-stage of AD compared to the group treated with donepezil only. In addition, co-administration of SIP3 and donepezil effectively reduced the depression-like behavior in the forced swimming and tail suspension tests. Furthermore, RNA sequencing of the cerebral cortex transcriptome and miRNA of the hippocampus showed that the gene expression profiles after a low dose SIP3 co-treatment were more similar to those of the normal phenotype mice than those obtained after the donepezil treatment alone. The Gene Ontology (GO) and the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways, showed that differentially expressed genes were involved in the locomotor behavior and neuroactive ligand-receptor interactions. These results suggest that a co-treatment of low dose SIP3 and donepezil improves impaired learning, memory, and depression in the mid-stage of AD in mice. Co-treatment of low dose SIP3 and donepezil improves impaired learning, memory, and depression in the mid-stage of AD in mice.

An Annotated Checklist of Ethno Medicinal Tree Species in Terakanahalli Reserve Forest area of Sirsi range, Karnataka, (India)

Sirsi town is situated in the midst of Northern Central Western Ghats of Karnataka State. The forests adjoining to the town are known for its natural diversified floral wealth. These plants are used by local people as herbal medicine. Present study aims to prepare a check list of existing tree species in Terakanahalli reserved forest area situated adjacent to Sirsi town. The list was presented according to the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group IV (APG-IV) system of classification. Study enumerated a total of 63 tree species belonging 32 families from Terakanahalli reserve forest area. Enlisted tree species belongs to diverse families particularly Leguminosae, Anacardiaceae, Moraceae and Combretaceae. Ethno medicinal uses from Uttara Kannada district were also indicated for the listed tree species. Globally, Santalum album and Garcinia indica are categorised as vulnerable species with declining population by IUCN. The study area is under pressure because of anthropogenic activity and it needs proper management and conservation practices for sustainability.

Expression Pattern of in Vitro Organogenesis-Associated Genes as Transcriptional Marker in Indian Sandalwood (Santalum Album L.)

Indian sandalwood (Santalum album L.) is an expensive wood that requires reproducible method for mass propagation to ensure sustainable use. Organogenesis employs different combinations of the medium;. its suitability is decided based on the explant’s morphological changes. Early prediction of organogenesis in the explant helps reduce the combinations thereby saving time and resources. We initially developed an efficient protocol for the direct and indirect organogenesis (up to shooting development phase) of sandalwood in the present investigation. Woody Plant Media (WPM) supplemented with various concentrations of 6-Bezylaminopurine (BAP) and 1-Naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) were tested for direct organogenesis, while different treatments consisting of various levels of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), NAA, BAP, Adenine sulphate (ADS), glycine and potassium nitrate were tested for indirect organogenesis.Three stages of leaf development were selected viz., the leaf just after inoculation in WPM media, initial stage of callus formation from leaf and shoot formation for expression pattern analysis. The targeted genes were Alternative oxidase (ao), Late embryogenesis abundant (lea), Cytochrome P450 (cyt-p450), ABC transporter (abct), and Serine-threonine phosphatase (stp) which are associated with in vitro organogenesis. The expression patterns were evaluated to identify a transcription marker. During the initial stages of organogenesis, ao, cyt-p450 and abct showed no/little change in expression in thedirect pathway but up-regulation of ao and abct and downregulation of cyt-p450 were observed in the indirect pathway. Expression of lea was increased up to 70-fold during direct and dropped to half during indirect organogenesis.

Tree to tree variation in reproductive phenology in Indian sandalwood (Santalum album Linn)

In the present study, reproductive phenology of 15 individuals of Indian sandalwood (Santalum album) was carried out at the campus of Forest Training Institute, Gungaragatti, Dharwad, Karnataka. Results showed that there was tree to tree variation for time of flowering and fruiting in Indian sandalwood. Marked individuals showed two peak flowerings in a year viz first peak during Jun-Aug and second during Dec-Jan. Among 15 individuals, one tree showed peak flowering in Sept and Nov. Fruiting phenology showed that all individuals fruited during Aug to May except during Jun to Jul. Peak fruiting period for seed collection was between Apr to May and Oct to Nov.