Indian Fruit Bat Research Articles

First Report of ESBL/ Beta-lactamase Producing Enterobacteriaceae in Indian Fruit Bat: the Primitive and Sustainable Species of Ecosystem as a Reservoir of Antimicrobial Resistance

First Report of ESBL/ Beta-lactamase Producing Enterobacteriaceae in Indian Fruit Bat: the Primitive and Sustainable Species of Ecosystem as a Reservoir of Antimicrobial Resistance

CO1-Based DNA barcoding for assessing diversity of Pteropus giganteus from the state of Azad Jammu Kashmir, Pakistan.

The flying fox (Pteropus giganteus) also familiar with the name of the greater Indian fruit Bat belongs to the order Chiroptera and family Pteropodidae. Current research emphasis on the DNA barcoding of P. giganteus in Azad Jammu Kashmir. Bat sequences were amplified and PCR products were sequenced and examined by bioinformatics software. Congeneric and conspecific, nucleotide composition and K2P nucleotide deviation, haplotype diversity and the number of haplotypes were estimated. The analysis showed that all of the five studied samples of P. giganteus had low G contents (G 19.8%) than C (27.8%), A (25.1%) and T (27.3%) contents. The calculated haplotype diversity was 0.60% and the mean intraspecific K2P distance was 0.001% having a high number of transitional substitutions. The study suggested that P. giganteus (R=0.00) do not deviate from the neutral evolution. It was determined from the conclusion that this mtDNA gene is a better marker for identification of Bat species than nuclear genes due to its distinctive characteristics and may serve as a landmark for the identification of interconnected species at the molecular level and in the determination of population genetics.

Effect of female group size on harem male roosting behavior of the Indian short-nosed fruit bat Cynopterus sphinx

Mate guarding has been known to incur costs and cause constraints for harem males in many polygynous species. However, the effect of female group size on the harem male’s time budget in bats has received very limited attention. The Indian short-nosed fruit bat, Cynopterus sphinx, exhibits resource defense polygyny, in which tent roosting males construct tents and defend multiple female bats. We studied the effect of female group size on three aspects of harem male behavior: social grooming by reciprocal licking, tent maintenance, and tent guarding in the mast tree Polyalthia longifolia. In the process of reciprocal licking, all the bats in the harem were drenched in saliva before emergence, and this activity was positively and significantly correlated with female group size. Once females departed for foraging, harem males remained in their respective tents at night-time between intermittent foraging bouts and engaged in tent maintenance and tent guarding. Time invested by harem male bats in tent maintenance and tent guarding were positively and significantly correlated with female group size. Harem males extended their presence in tent by utilizing tents as feeding roosts. Female group size also influenced the emergence time of harem male bats, where males with largest group emerged later than did the smallest group. Likewise, harem male with the smallest group had more time available for foraging than the male with the largest group. Findings of this study suggest that having a larger harem may indeed be costly for the males by reducing their foraging time.

Ultrastructure of the Secretory Epithelial Cells of the Bulbo-Urethral Glands (Cowper's gland) in the Indian Fruit Bat, Rousettus leschenaulti (Desmarest) During the Reproductive Cycle

Ultrastructure of the Secretory Epithelial Cells of the Bulbo-Urethral Glands (Cowper's gland) in the Indian Fruit Bat, Rousettus leschenaulti (Desmarest) During the Reproductive Cycle

Foraging of the Indian Short-nosed Fruit Bat Cynopterus sphinx on banana in shops and on the pieces dropped by monkeys at a temple

The Indian Short-nosed Fruit Bat Cynopterus sphinx fed on the pieces of banana fruit that were dropped by monkeys on the tower of a temple and in nearby shops. The monkeys obtained fruits from devotees and shop owners. The peak number of bat visits occurred during pre- and post- midnight hours at the tower and shops, respectively, coinciding with the lights off situation and reduced human disturbance. The bats landed on bunches of ripe bananas hanging in the front of shops. The number of bat landings on the tower was greater than that in the shops. The overall number of bat visits were higher during October when compared to other periods of the year. This may be due to the occurrence of more festivals during October. Our study is an example of opportunistic feeding, in which banana pieces dropped while monkeys were feeding on them were eaten by the bats.

Cellular composition of the Corpus luteum of Indian fruit bat, Rousettus leschenaulti (Desmarest) during early embryonic development

The fine structure of luteal cell of the corpus luteum of Indian fruit bat, Rousettus leschenaulti was studied at three stages unilaminar blastocyst stage, Implanted bilaminar blastocyst stage and limb bud stage of early pregnancy. At unilaminar blastocyst stage luteal cells had small nuclei euchromatin. Mitochondria were small, round shaped with tubular cristae. Numerous less osmiophilic lipid droplets were observed in cytoplasmic field of the luteal cells. After implantation at implanted bilaminar blastocyst stage nuclear heterochromatin were reduced and nucleoli were larger and complex. Mitochondria were enlarged and often bizarre shaped with tubular cristae. Golgi complex and agranular endoplasmic reticulum were more conspicuous. Lipid droplets were less osmiophilic. At the stage of limb bud formation the luteal cells suggests different morphological picture, the nuclear size is reduced with clumps of heterochromatin. The agranular endoplasmic reticulum assumes the form of bundles of parallel tubules dispersed in several planes. Mitochondrial size was reduced then the previous stage and they posses vesicular cristae. These observations suggest that the steroidogenic activity of the luteal cells is highest during implantation and comparatively regresses during limb bud formation. It is suggested that the luteal cells is an important ovarian source of pregnancy hormones.

Ultrastructure of the secretory epithelial cells of the Cowper's gland in the Indian fruit bat, Rousettus leschenaulti (Desmarest) during the reproductive cycle

The present paper describes the ultrastructural characteristics of the Cowper’ glands of the Indian fruit bat, Rousettus leschenaulti during its sexually inactive-breeding cycle. The functional significance of the secretions of the Cowper's gland in reproduction is discussed. In Rousettus, Cowper's glands are small, pear-shaped, bilaterally symmetrical and are situated on either side of the base of the penis. Each lobule is made up of secretory acini lined by columnar or pyramidal cells. Ultrastructurally, the secretory epithelial cells are characterized by well-developed rough endoplasmic reticulum, extensively developed Golgi complex, and mitochondria. Three different types of secretory granules can be identified on the basis of electron density. These granules represent the different stages of granule maturation. The secretory products are released into the lumen both by apocrine and merocrine modes. The secretory material synthesized by the Cowper’ gland may be involved in various male reproductive processes of this species of bat.

SOLITARY ADULT MALES IN A POLYGYNOUS-MATING BAT (CYNOPTERUS SPHINX): A FORCED OPTION OR A STRATEGY?

Abstract The Indian short-nosed fruit bat (Cynopterus sphinx) is thought to use a resource-based polygynous mating system. Breeding colonies typically consist of a few harems with 1 or more solitary males nearby. Essential to understanding the mating system of C. sphinx is identification of the reasons for solitary roosting behavior in adult males. In this study, we attempt to elucidate the impetus behind solitary roosting by investigating the following 2 questions: Are solitary males less competitive and so remain isolated from breeding activities? Are trees and foliage suitable for tent-making a scarce resource? We carried out weekly censuses and mark–recapture studies from January to December 2000. We assessed impact of available resources on roosting patterns of adult males. Examination of our results suggests the following about the mating system of these bats. Female aggregation in C. sphinx cannot be attributed to scarce resources. Morphological variables did not differ between harem and nonharem m...

Clinal variation in body size and sexual dimorphism in an Indian fruit bat, Cynopterus sphinx (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae)

Geographic variation in body size and sexual dimorphism of the short-nosed fruit bat (Cynopterus sphinx) was investigated in peninsular India. Bats were sampled at 12 localities along a 1200 km latitudinal transect that paralleled the eastern flanks of the Western Ghats. The geographic pattern of variation in external morphology of C. sphinx conforms to the predictions of Bergmann's Rule, as indicated by a steep, monotonic cline of increasing body size from south to north. This study represents one of the first conclusively documented examples of Bergmann's Rule in a tropical mammal and confirms that latitudinal clines in body size are not exclusively restricted to temperate zone homeotherms. Body size was indexed by a multivariate axis derived from principal components analysis of linear measurements that summarize body and wing dimensions. Additionally, length of forearm was used as a univariate index of structural size to examine geographic variation in a more inclusive sample of bats across the latitudinal transect. Multivariate and univariate size metrics were strongly and positively correlated with body mass, and exhibited highly concordant patterns of clinal variation. Stepwise multiple regression on climatological variables revealed that increasing size of male and female C. sphinx was associated with decreasing minimum temperature, increasing relative humidity, and increasing seasonality. Although patterns of geographic size variation were highly concordant between the sexes, C. sphinx also exhibited a latitudinal cline in the magnitude and direction of sexual size dimorphism. The size differential reversed direction across the latitudinal gradient, as males averaged larger in the north, and females averaged larger in the south. The degree of female-biased size dimorphism across the transect was negatively correlated with body size of both sexes. Canonical discriminant analysis revealed that male- and female-biased size dimorphism were based on contrasting sets of external characters. Available data on geographic variation in the degree of polygyny in C. sphinx suggests that sexual selection on male size may play a role in determining the geographic pattern of sexual size dimorphism.

Clinal variation in body size and sexual dimorphism in an Indian fruit bat, Cynopterus sphinx (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae)

Geographic variation in body size and sexual dimorphism of the short-nosed fruit bat (Cynopterus sphinx) was investigated in peninsular India. Bats were sampled at 12 localities along a 1200 km latitudinal transect that paralleled the eastern flanks of the Western Ghats. The geographic pattern of variation in external morphology of C. sphinx conforms to the predictions of Bergmann's Rule, as indicated by a steep, monotonic cline of increasing body size from south to north. This study represents one of the first conclusively documented examples of Bergmann's Rule in a tropical mammal and confirms that latitudinal clines in body size are not exclusively restricted to temperate zone homeotherms. Body size was indexed by a multivariate axis derived from principal components analysis of linear measurements that summarize body and wing dimensions. Additionally, length of forearm was used as a univariate index of structural size to examine geographic variation in a more inclusive sample of bats across the latitudinal transect. Multivariate and univariate size metrics were strongly and positively correlated with body mass, and exhibited highly concordant patterns of clinal variation. Stepwise multiple regression on climatological variables revealed that increasing size of male and female C. sphinx was associated with decreasing minimum temperature, increasing relative humidity, and increasing seasonality. Although patterns of geographic size variation were highly concordant between the sexes, C. sphinx also exhibited a latitudinal cline in the magnitude and direction of sexual size dimorphism. The size differential reversed direction across the latitudinal gradient, as males averaged larger in the north, and females averaged larger in the south. The degree of female-biased size dimorphism across the transect was negatively correlated with body size of both sexes. Canonical discriminant analysis revealed that male- and female-biased size dimorphism were based on contrasting sets of external characters. Available data on geographic variation in the degree of polygyny in C. sphinx suggests that sexual selection on male size may play a role in determining the geographic pattern of sexual size dimorphism.

Parentage, reproductive success and breeding behaviour in the greater horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus ferrumequinum).

Female greater horseshoe bats form maternity colonies each summer in order to give birth and raise young. During the mating period, females visit males occupying territorial sites, copulation takes place and sperm are stored until ovulation occurs, normally in April. Using microsatellite markers and a likelihood method of parentage analysis, we studied breeding behaviour and male reproductive success over a five-year period in a population of bats in south-west Britain. Paternity was assigned with 80% confidence to 44% of young born in five successive cohorts. While a small annual skew in male reproductive success was detected, the variance increased over five years due to the repeated success of a few individuals. Mating was polygynous, although some females gave birth to offspring sired by the same male in separate years. Such repeated partnerships probably result from fidelity for either mating sites or individuals or from sperm competition. Females mated with males born both within and outside their own natal colony; however, relatedness between parents was no less than the average recorded for male female pairs. Gene flow between colonies is likely to be primarily mediated by both female and male dispersal during the mating period rather than more permanent movements.

Analysis of immunocompetent cells in the bat, Pteropus giganteus: Isolation and scanning electron microscopic characterization

Immunocompetent cells of the Indian fruit bat ( P. giganteus) were characterized by differential surface adhesiveness and surface topography. We observed three cell types: (1) plastic adherent with pseudopodia; (2) nylon wool adherent with small microvilli and pits; and (3) a nylon wool nonadherent with comparatively smooth surfaces. These cell types resemble, respectively, macrophages, B cells and T cells of other mammals, including mice and humans. The disposition of microvilli on the B-type cell surface changes significantly after immunization, which suggests modulation of the molecular organization of the cell membrane and its fluidity. The proportions of these three cell types are not much different from those found in mice. Follicular dendritic cells, capable of retaining antigen for long periods in mice, have also been detected in bats. Further characterization of immunocompetent cells will help in understanding the mechanism of immune responses in bats.

Electron microscopic observations on the yolk sac of the Indian fruit bat, Rousettus leschenaulti (Desmarest) (Pteropidae).

AbstractThe yolk sac of the Indian fruit bat Rousettus leschenaulti is unique since during the course of development it become converted into a solid, richly vascular endocrine gland‐like structure with both the endodermal and mesothelial cells undergoing substantial hypertrophy. The yolk sac is progressively drawn from the abembryonic (antimesometrial side) to the embryonic pole (mesometrial side) of the chorionic sac where in late stages it comes to rest against the placental disc. The endodermal cells become grouped into clusters of acinus‐like structures surrounded by the columnar mesothelial cells; the yolk‐sac lumen is in most instances obliterated. Individual endodermal cells are large in comparison to mesothelial cells. The endodermal cell population varies between cells with abundant agranular ER and areas devoid of organelles to others with dense cytoplasm containing stacks of granular ER. All endodermal cells have numerous mitochondria and a few lipid droplets.The mesothelial cells are columnar with either dome‐shaped, pointed or flattened apices bearing numerous elongate microvilli; within these are parallel‐arranged microfilaments. While the apical cytoplasm shows the presence of absorptive tubules. coated vesicles and caveolae, the basal cytoplasm contains a few small mitochondria. Some mesothelial cells contain lipid droplets in their basal cytoplasm. On structural bases it is postulated that the mesothelial cells are absorptive in function while the endodermal cells are synthetic and secretory.

The conjugation of benzoic acid in the African bat, Epomops franqueti

1. The conjugation of [ 14C]benzoic acid has been studied in a species of African fruit bat ( Epomops franqueti). Hippuric acid was found as a metabolite of benzoic acid in this bat, in contrast to the Indian fruit bat ( Pteropus giganteus) which does not make this metabolite. 2. Three conjugates of benzoic acid were found in the urine of Epomops franqueti), namely benzoylglucuronide (32% of the 14C excreted in 24 hr), benzoylglycine (hippuric acid; 31%) and benzoylglutamic acid (11%).

The conjugation of benzoic acid and phenylacetic acid by the pipistrelle bat

1. British Pipistrelle bats dosed with 14C-labelled benzoic acid produced a single metabolite, hippuric acid, in contrast to the Indian fruit bat which appears unable to synthesize this conjugate. 2. 14C-labelled phenylacetic acid was also conjugated with glycine in the Pipistrelle bat, which compares with the Asian, African and South American bats studied previously.

Conjugation of foreign compounds in the elephant and hyaena

Little is known about the metabolism of foreign compounds in exotic animals. French et al. [ 1 ] have examined lions, genets and civets and Ette et al. [2] and Idle et al. [3] have studied the Indian fruit bat. In this paper we report some observations made on the African elephant (Loxodonta) and the spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocutu). There is a report in the literature that the elephant (Indian?) forms hippuric acid [4], but no data seems to have been obtained on the hyaena. In this work it will be shown that like most species of mammals, the African elephant converts benzoic and phenylacetic acid into their glycine conjugates and phenol into its sulphate and glucuronic acid conjugates. In the case of the hyaena phenol, at a level of 10 mg/ kg, forms only sulphate conjugates and is thus similar to the cat, lion, civet and genet and also the caracal [5]. The hyaena also does not acetylate the aromatic amino group of sulphadimethoxine and is in this respect like the domestic dog [6] rather than the cats which acetylate the drug [ 1 ] . The hyaena, however, converts phenylacetic acid to phenacetylglycine like many other species. 1-Naphthylacetic acid is conjugated in the hyaena mainly with glycine and to a lesser extent with taurine as it is in both the cat [7] and the dog [8], but there is also a substantial glucuronide conjugation of this acid in the hyaena which does not occur in the cat [7] and only slightly in the dog 181. 2. Experimental

Glycine conjugation in the Indian fruit bat

Glycine conjugation in the Indian fruit bat

The absence of hippuric acid synthesis in the Indian fruit bat

Indian fruit bats ( Pteropus giganteus ) do not convert injected [ 14C] benzoic acid into hippuric acid. Homogenates of fruit bat liver or kidney were unable to convert benzoic acid into hippuric acid. The main urinary metabolite (80–90% of dose) of benzoic acid in the fruit bat was benzoylglucuronide. Hippuric acid was not detectable in normal Indian fruit bat urine.

The fate of sulphadimethoxine in primates compared with other species.

1. The metabolism of sulphadimethoxine (2,4-dimethoxy-6-sulphanilamidopyrimidine) was examined in nine species of primates and nine species of non-primates. 2. The main metabolite of the drug in the urine in man, rhesus monkey, baboon, squirrel monkey, capuchin, bushbaby, slow loris and tree shrew was sulphadimethoxine N(1)-glucuronide. In the green monkey, although the main metabolite was N(4)-acetylsulphadimethoxine, the N(1)-glucuronide was also a major metabolite. 3. In the dog, rat, mouse, guinea pig, Indian fruit bat and hen the N(1)-glucuronide was a minor metabolite in the urine, whereas in the cat, ferret and rabbit this glucuronide was not found in the urine. 4. All the species examined except the dog excreted some N(4)-acetylsulphadimethoxine, which was the major metabolite in the green monkey, rabbit and guinea pig. 5. In the tree shrew, a doubtful primate, N(1)-glucuronide formation was similar to that in the other primates. 6. It is suggested that the slow excretion of the drug by the rat may be due partly to strong binding of the drug to tissue proteins and that the strength of binding may vary with species. 7. In the rat the amount of N(1)-glucuronide found in the urine is not a true indication of the extent of this conjugation since much more of the conjugate was found in the bile (7% of the dose) than in the urine (1%). In the rabbit, no N(1)-glucuronide was found in the bile or urine, but a small amount of sulphadimethoxine N(4)-glucuronide was found in the bile of the rat (0.5% of dose) and rabbit (0.8%).

The fate of benzoic acid in various species.

1. The urinary excretion of orally administered [(14)C]benzoic acid in man and 20 other species of animal was examined. 2. At a dose of 50mg/kg, benzoic acid was excreted by the rodents (rat, mouse, guinea pig, golden hamster, steppe lemming and gerbil), the rabbit, the cat and the capuchin monkey almost entirely as hippuric acid (95-100% of 24h excretion). 3. In man at a dose of 1mg/kg and the rhesus monkey at 20mg/kg benzoic acid was excreted entirely as hippuric acid. 4. At 50mg/kg benzoic acid was excreted as hippuric acid to the extent of about 80% of the 24h excretion in the squirrel monkey, pig, dog, ferret, hedgehog and pigeon, the other 20% being found as benzoyl glucuronide and benzoic acid, the latter possibly arising by decomposition of the former. 5. On increasing the dose of benzoic acid to 200mg/kg in the ferret, the proportion of benzoyl glucuronide excreted increased and that of hippuric acid decreased. This did not occur in the rabbit, which excreted 200mg/kg almost entirely as hippuric acid. It appears that the hedgehog and ferret are like the dog in respect to their metabolism of benzoic acid. 6. The Indian fruit bat produced only traces of hippuric acid and possibly has a defect in the glycine conjugation of benzoic acid. The main metabolite in this animal (dose 50mg/kg) was benzoyl glucuronide. 7. The chicken, side-necked turtle and gecko converted benzoic acid mainly into ornithuric acid, but all three species also excreted smaller amounts of hippuric acid.