Indian Farms Research Articles

Design and Development of Effective braking system for Pneumatic Tyer Bullock Carts

India is a country where the main occupation is agriculture. More than 3/5 th of India's population is employed in this sector. Sugarcane is the largest crop cultivated in Indian farms. Bullock cart is the one of the two main transportation media used to transport sugarcane from agricultural land to the sugar factories. Bullocks used for this purpose suffer various problems. The main problem related with bullock cart is speed control. It is observed that to control speed of cart, cart riders do dangerous experiments like application of brake manually by directly putting wood in front of wheels, sitting backside of cart, applying tremendous force on bulls etc. Because of such unscientific methods major accident happens which causes major casualties. The purpose of present work is to provide scientific solution to control speed of cart.

Prevalence, site and tissue preference of myxozoan parasites infecting gills of cultured fish in Punjab (India).

Native carp species cultured in Indian farms in Punjab (catla Catla catla, rohu Labeo rohita, mrigal Cirrhinus mrigala, exotic carps such as silver carp Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, grass carp Ctenopharyngodon idella, common carp Cyprinus carpio and a catfish Sperata seenghala) were examined for the presence of myxozoan parasites infecting gills. Firstly, the gills were examined under a zoom-stereomicroscope for the presence of plasmodia. The number of plasmodia per gill was counted to determine the index for the intensity of infection. Infected tissues were processed for histology, and 3-4 µm sections of infected gills were stained with haematoxylin & eosin and Luna's method. A total of 19 species of myxosporean were found infecting various cell types in the gills. Of these, 14 species belonged to the genus Myxobolus, 3 species to the genus Thelohanellus and 2 species to the genus Henneguya. Species belonging to the genus Myxobolus formed the interlamellar and intralamellar vascular (LV) type plasmodia, and species belonging to the genus Thelohanellus and Henneguya formed intrafilamental vascular (FV) type plasmodia. Mixed infections comprising 2, 3 or 4 different myxozoan species were noted in individual fish. The most common type of parasitism was polyparasitism due to 4 myxobolids co-occuring in fish with an infection rate of 23.16%. All species caused mild to severe haemorrhagic gill disease with little clinical symptomatology.

Socio-economic status of farmers rearing Kherigarh, an indigenous breed of cattle

Modernization of agriculture enhances the use of mechanical power in agriculture but draught animal power (DAP) still continues to be used on Indian farms due to small holdings and less availability of recourses to the farmers. In that view the present investigation was carried out to study the socio-economic statutes of farmer's rearing Kherigarh, an indigenous draught breed of cattle. A total of 120 respondents from the native tract of this breed were interviewed using a well-structured interview schedule. Obtained data revealed that suitability of this breed in flooded area push the livestock farmers towards rearing of this breed despite of low milk productivity of animals. Findings indicated that majority of the farmers engaged in rearing of this breed were male (93.30%), middle aged (39.17%) and belonged to marginal and small categories. About 78 per cent farmers had annual income below 1,30,000. Study also revealed that farmers had medium sized joint family and primarily engaged in agricultural activity. Though, poor socio-economic status of livestock farmers cannot be ignored for the improvement of Kherigarh rearer, in study area. Involvement of government in promoting both Kherigarh breed as well as livestock farmers rearing this breed is needed to encourage the conservation of this valuable breed of cattle.

Molecular characterization of group B rotavirus circulating in pigs from India: Identification of a strain bearing a novel VP7 genotype, G21

The occurrence of group B rotavirus (RVB) infections in pigs has been reported from different parts of world. However, such infection in the pig population maintained in Indian farms has not been investigated as yet. A total of 187 faecal specimens were collected from pigs reared in different pig farms/pigsties located in western and northern regions of India and tested for the presence of porcine RVB by amplification of the NSP2 gene using conventional RT-PCR. Nine specimens (4.8%) were shown to contain RVB RNA. N2 and N4 genotypes of NSP2 gene were detected in three and six RVB strains respectively. VP7 (G-type) and NSP5 (H-type) genes of selected six RVB strains were characterized to identify the genotypes. Multiple G (G7, G19 and G20) and H (H4 and H5) genotypes detected in the RVB strains indicated circulation of heterogeneous population of RVB strains in pigs of India. Additionally, one strain was proposed to belong to a novel RVB genotype designated as G21 on account of <80% identity of VP7 gene sequence with its counterpart in RVB strains from 20 established genotypes. Deduced amino acid sequence of VP7 gene also displayed the presence of seven unique substitutions in the strain. The study reports for the first time the occurrence of RVB infections in Indian pig herds and provides important epidemiological data useful for better understanding of ecology and evolution of porcine RVBs.

Development of power-tiller mounted cotton picker for selective picking with women operators

This paper highlights the development of women-operated pneumatic powered cotton picker attachment to powertiller compatible to major Indian cotton varieties and the performance results with a special emphasis to optimization of functional components. For development of the unit, dimensions of machine parameters, viz. pick-up pipe diameter, filter type, filter height, collection drum capacity, and aspirator speed were optimized through build and test method. The effect of variations of said parameters on pressure, which directly induces picking force, was studied independently and in combination, and the best-suited parameters were selected through statistical analysis. From the statistical analysis, the optimized cotton picker is with pick-up diameter of 25 mm, nylon mesh filter of 400 mm height and with 150 L capacity collection drum with the aspirator speed of 5500 rpm. The cost of picking with picker was Rupees 9.50 per kg of cotton (0.16 USD). The saving in cost, time, and energy compared to manual picking are 17.0, 75.0, and 74.6% respectively. The break-even point and pay-back period for the picker are 5900 kg/annum and 0.45 year respectively. The pneumatic principles adopted in the development of cotton-picker are promising in addressing the requirement of the women for cotton picking in Indian farms.

Children's Safety on American Indian Farms: Information and Recommendations

ABSTRACT It is estimated that 1.2 million youth younger than age 20 live on farms; American Indian children constitute an important but understudied subset of this at-risk group. Despite documented risks of injuries and death among children who live and work on farms and a descending trend in the overall reported fatalities among youth who live and/or work on farms, very little is known about the agriculture-related injury and fatality experience of American Indian youth. Limited data indicate that drowning, motor vehicles, and poisonings are leading causes of unintentional mortality and morbidity for this group, although the attribution to agricultural exposure is not evident. The scant available data indicate a need to look more closely at agricultural work, bystander exposures, and other farm events that put American Indian youth at risk of illness, injury, or death compared to factors more fully reported for majority youth in the agriculture population, in order to guide intervention and prevention programs that are appropriate and acceptable to this vulnerable population.

CARVER+Shock 'Agriculture' Software for Agriculturists to Fight against Bioterrorism

Agriculture) software is developed by Sandia National Laboratory, USA with the association of USFDA and USDA-APHIS as a food defense tool for farms. In the wake of recent findings on food and agriculture defense studies, it is very useful software to prepare the farm managers to protect against any act and attack of bioterrorism. The software was tested on the north Indian farms and reports are alarming. Authors advise fast and firm actions to be taken to implement the mitigations advised by this hazard analysis process.

Critical Review of Precision Agriculture Technologies and Its Scope of Adoption in India

Precision agriculture (PA) concept was initiated for site specific crop management as a combination of positioning system technology, variable rate technology, remote sensing, yield mapping etc. to optimize th e profitability, sustainability with a reduced environmental impact. From centuries Indian farms are experiencing some sort of soft precision agriculture technology. But the challenges of free and globalized market as well as ever-increasing population with huge food grain demand create the scope of adoption of hard precision agriculture technology in Indian farms. So learning the new agricultural technology invented in developed countries and its proper modification and application according to the domestic condition is necessary. Therefore, nearly hundred research papers generated in last three decades have been critically reviewed to find the status of main six components of PA, i.e., Positioning System, Remote Sensing, Variable Rate Technology, Crop & Soil Sensing & Analysis, Yield Mapping and Information Transmission Protocol. Additionally strategies for adoption of PA in Indian agriculture are discussed.

Indian isolates of white spot syndrome virus exhibit variations in their pathogenicity and genomic tandem repeats

To detect genomic variation of white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) isolates from different geographical regions of India, the variable number of the tandem repeat (VNTR) region of the ORF 94 (Thailand WSSV isolate - GeneBank Accession No. AF369029) was analysed using five specific sets of primers. Analysis of 70 WSSV-positive samples showed the presence of 14 different genotypes of WSSV with VNTRs ranging from 2 to 16 tandem repeats with the majority (85.47%) having 6-12 tandem repeats. Occurrence of different genotypes of WSSV was found to be neither correlated to any specific geographical region nor to the different growth stage of the tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon. Pathogenicity studies conducted with 25 isolates of WSSV revealed the presence of virulent and avirulent strains of WSSV in Indian shrimp farms. However, an unambiguous link could not be established between the different genotypes and their virulence.

A decision support system for selection of tractor–implement system used on Indian farms

The selection of tractor and its matching implements has now become very difficult in India because of availability of variety of tractor models ranging from 10 to 45 kW. To overcome the problem of matching of tractor–implement system, an expert system modelling approach leading to decision support system (DSS) was adopted to make the step wise decision. The application of DSS was demonstrated in the paper to select either an implement to match the tractor or to select a tractor to match the implement under different soil and operating conditions. The DSS leading to computer software developed in Visual Basic™ programming provided the intuitive user interfaces by linking databases such as specifications of tractors and implements, tractor performance data, soil and operating conditions, to support the decision on selection of tractor–implement system. The programme calculates working width of implement based on input data for the most critical field operation and helps in selection of a suitable implement having width nearer to the calculated value among the commercially available implements. The software calculates the required drawbar power of the tractor based on draft and working speed of the selected implement. Finally, the PTO power requirement of a tractor is calculated by the software. Based on calculated PTO power, the software suggests available makes and models of tractor/machinery from the compiled data bank. The developed DSS was tested with a case study to demonstrate the flexibility of the software. The DSS can be used effectively in selection of a tractor or an implement of particular size from various makes and models of commercially available tractors and implements.

Agricultural injuries in Etawah district of Uttar Pradesh in India

Increased use of farm machinery along with other agricultural inputs has enhanced the production and productivity of Indian farms. Simultaneously, it has also increased occupational health hazards on the farms. Major occupational health hazards are farm related injuries. Very little information is available about the type and nature of agricultural injuries on Indian farms. In the present study, agriculture injuries data were collected for the period 1996–2000 for the Etawah district of Uttar Pradesh in India. It has a total population of 1.4 million while 0.75 million were associated with agricultural activities. The agricultural injuries incidence rate was 0.8 per thousand workers per year in the study area. Out of all agricultural injuries, 9% injuries were fatal. The highest number of injury victims were in the age group of 30–44 years. The highest percentages of injured victims were literate but non-matric. The monetary loss due to agricultural injuries in the study area was estimated to be about US $730,000 per year. To minimize agricultural injuries, development of interventions and trainings needs to be organized at block levels for proper and safe operation of agricultural equipment.

Ergonomic Evaluation of Foot Operated Rotary Power Generation

Ergonomic Evaluation of Foot Operated Rotary Power Generation

Assessment of controls layout of Indian tractors

Tractors in low-income countries are used both for farm and non-farm activities. Most of the tractors being manufactured in India are products of collaboration with other countries. The design of tractors manufactured in India has not changed much in the past five decades especially from an ergonomics point of view, because of economic considerations. This paper describes a tractor control layout assessment with respect to the Indian population and compares the location of controls with workspace envelopes and the IS12343 standard for commonly used tractors on Indian farms. Controls like steering, foot clutch, foot brake, foot accelerator are located in areas defined by IS12343 standard in some tractors but these are not placed in the workspace envelopes of the Indian population. This results in a mismatch between the workspace envelope and location of controls as defined by the standard. The controls need a complete change in their layout to be in the workspace envelopes, as this cannot be achieved by providing seat movement in the horizontal and vertical directions in the present tractor design.

Farm hand tools injuries: A case study from northern India

Hand tools are commonly used on Indian farms. There are 800 million hand tools used on Indian farms by 260 million farm workers. This study was done in two phases. In the first phase, data on agricultural related injuries was collected from nine contiguous villages in a total population of 19,723 persons. In the second phase of study 21 more villages were added and population covered was 78,890. A total of 576 agricultural injuries were reported in Phase I, hand tools accounted for 332 (58%) of total agricultural injuries. In Phase II, 54 (19%) injuries were hand tool related out of total 282 agricultural injuries. Most of the injuries i.e. 98% and 91% of the hand tool injuries caused were AIS 1 (45% and 17% of the total AIS 1 injuries) in Phase I and II. Seventy percent of AIS1 hand tool injuries had a recovery time of more than 7 days in Phase I. In Phase II, all AIS 1 injuries took more than 7 days to recover. The mechanism of injuries was slippage of tool from hand or hitting a hard surface with impact type soil interactive tools (spade). The foot and legs were the most frequently injured body part in these tools. For harvesting tools (sickle), deep cuts of fingers and in weeding fork abrasions on under side of little finger because of ground contact were common injuries. For axe and sugar cane cutter, higher severity injuries were sustained on upper extremities. There are 1700 injuries related to hand tools per hundred thousand farm workers per year in rural India. Productivity was impaired to the tune of 24,000 days per hundred thousand population because of injuries caused by hand tools on these farms.

Construction & Maintenance of Farm-Roads from Local Materials & Technology By Farmers' Cooperatives

It is interesting to note that the roads leading to Indian Farms in any rural area is generally kacha made up from local soil, sand and stones. It leads to various problems including safety, environmental, wastage of energy, lesser efficiency, problem in delivery of seeds, pesticides, and fertilizer to the farms and so forth, similarly finished products to the markets. The problem mounts in rainy season. Indian cooperatives are really working well, particularly in rural area. They are using all resources including management skill locally available. Each farmer is affected by lack of proper road and interested to contribute if good roads are available. Indian cooperatives are pervasive in farmers' rural life to the extent 100% villages are covered by some kind of cooperative society. Farmers themselves may extend the scheme to the basic infrastructure need to construct & maintain road.

Ergonomic Evaluation of Hand Tools Injuries among Indian Farmers

There are 800 million hand tools used on Indian farms by 260 million farm workers. This study was done in survey of two phases. In the first phase, data on agricultural related injuries was collected from nine contiguous villages in a total population of 19,723 persons. In the second phase of study 21 more villages were added and population covered in was 78,890. A total of576 and 282 agricultural injuries were reported in Phase-I and Phase-II respectively. Hand tools accounted for 332 (58%) and 54 (19%) of total agricultural injuries in the two phases of survey respectively. Most of the injuries i.e. 98% and 91% of the hand tool injuries caused were AIS I (45% and 17% of the total AIS I injuries) in Phase I and II. 70% of AIS I hand tool injuries had a recovery time of more than 7 days in Phase I. In phase II, all AIS I injuries took more than 7 days to recover. The mechanism of injuries was slippage of tool from hand or hitting a hard surface in impact type soil interactive tools (spade). The foot and legs were the body part injured most frequently in these tools. In case of harvesting tools (sickle), amputations of fingers and in weeding fork abrasions on under side of little finger because of ground contact were common injuries. In case of axe and sugar cane cutter injuries, higher severity injuries were sustained on upper extremities. There are 1700 injuries related to hand tools per hundred thousand farm workers per year in rural India. Productivity is impaired to the tune of24,000 days per hundred thousand population because of injuries caused by hand tools on farms.

Energy Use Pattern and Future Energy Requirement for Crop Production by 2020

India achieved rise in food grains productivity from 872 kg/ha (1970) to 1707 kg/ha (2003) requiring energy use of 5440 MJ/t in 1970 to 11391 MJ/t in 2003. The direct commercial/indirect energy ratio increased from 0.16 in 1970 to 1.74 in 2003, reflecting increasing role of mechanisation. Among food grain crops, wheat and paddy are high energy consumers. The oilseed crops consume lower energy. Sugarcane and potato are high-energy consumers. Generally, less than 15 % of Indian farms efficiently use their resources. Traditional areas have higher scope of increasing energy efficiency than the others. Improved cultivation practices with optimal resource uses can further improve energy efficiency. Highest energy productivity is obtainable at yields lower than the potential. Farm power requirement would be at least 2kWfha, mechanical power contributing the maximum. With better energy management practices adopted in some areas, at least 25% of additional energy demand can be met out of the present consumptions.

"Bringing Them under Subjection": California's Tejón Indian Reservation and Beyond, 1852-1864

The final book in a three-volume history of California's Native people, Bringing Them under Subjection chronicles the development and demise of the state's first permanent reservation, the Sebastian Military Reserve, better known as the Tejon Reservation. George Harwood Phillips explains how local Native people were instrumental in the initial success of the reservation and how the institution was undermined by squatters and a Native policy emphasizing caution over innovation. Because the scope of the study encompasses most of the San Joaquin Valley in central California, events related to but unfolding beyond the reservation are also given considerable attention, in particular the founding and functioning of quasi reservations called 'Indian farms', the resistance offered by Native peoples in the southern valley, the degradation they underwent in the gold fields, and the survival of their progeny to the present. Drawing upon Native oral testimony and the accounts of state and federal officials, military officers, newspaper reporters, settlers, miners, and ranchers, Phillips provides a detailed and balanced account of a volatile period in California history. George Harwood Phillips is a professor emeritus of history at the University of Colorado. He is the author of several books about California Native peoples, including the first two volumes in this series: Indians and Intruders in Central California, 1769-1849 and Indians and Indian Agents: The Origins of the Reservation System in California, 1849-1852.

Farm-Level Yield mapping for precision crop management by linking remote sensing inputs and a crop simulation model

A study aimed at generating wheat yield maps of farmer’s fields by using remote sensing (RS) inputs was undertaken during the rabi season of 1998-99 in six villages of Alipur Block of Delhi State. RS derived leaf area index (LAI) were linked to wheat simulation model WTGROWS by adopting a strategy christened “Modified Corrective Approach”. This essentially uses an empirical relation of grain yield and LAI, which was derived from WTGROWS simulation model by running model for a combination of input resources, management practices and soil types occurring in the area. This biometric relationship was applied to all the wheat fields of the study area for which the LAI was derived from single acquisition of IRS LISS-III data (Jan 27, 99). The LAI-NDVI relation adopted was logarithmic in nature (R2=0.83) and was based on ground measurements of LAI in farmer’s fields in the same area. A comparison of predicted grain yield by the modified corrective approach and actual observed yield for the 22 farmer’s fields showed high correlation coefficient of 0.8 and a root mean square error (RMSE) of 597 kg ha-1 which was 17% of the observed mean yield. Thus linking of RS information and crop simulation model provides an alternative for mapping and forecasting crop yield under highly variable cropping environment of Indian farms, which is a pre-requisite for implementing Precision Crop Management (PCM).

Wheat Thresher Agricultural Injuries: A By-Product of Mechanised Farming

Farm mechanization has resulted in extensive use of wheat threshers on Indian farms. It has also increased agricultural injuries. A prospective study was undertaken for analysis of wheat thresher agricultural injuries and their remedial measures. Fifty two patients presenting with thresher injuries during the wheat harvesting season of March to June, 2003 were studied. A study-specific 14-point proforma was prepared to gather all possible information from site of injury to hospital records. Injuries were mostly of the upper limb and amputations accounted for most of these. Poor light arrangements, unskilled workers, drug / alcohol abuse, fatigue, poor designing and lack of orientation to work on these machines were the contributory factors to such injuries. The analysis emphasizes that the need of the hour is to decrease wheat thresher injuries through specific preventive approaches like improved designing, education, legislation, compensation and surveillance programmes.