Elephas Maximus Research Articles

Gross and morphometric studies on scapula of Indian elephant

The main objective of the work was to study gross and morphometry of the scapula of Indian elephant. The fore and hind limbs of the elephant were arranged in an almost vertical position under the body, similar to a pillar or leg of a table rather than being in the angular position seen in many other quadruped mammals to support great weight. The aim of this study was to elucidate the osteological outline on the bones of fore limb in Elephants. Three Indian elephants were used, along with some of the specimens available at the Department of Veterinary Anatomy, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Mhow. It was seen that scapula had two surfaces (lateral and medial), three borders (Cranial border, caudal border and dorsal border) and three angles (cranial, caudal and glenoid). The lateral surface was divided into two unequal fossa by a prominent scapular spine. The height of the scapular spine was lowest in the proximal part, but it increased towards the distal part, and was maximum towards near the acromion process. In the medial surface, a large subscapular fossa was present. The dorsal border was formed by the union of lateral and medial surfaces towards the vertebral column.

Polarized media coverage of conflicting, yet emblematic species: The ambivalent portrayal of the Asian elephant

Species involved in human-wildlife conflicts are likely to generate polarized framings in the media. Because media contribute to shaping public opinion, an analysis of wild species in the media helps documenting perceptions and attitudes towards wildlife.The case of the Asian elephant is illustrative because of its ambivalent perception, holding strong cultural and symbolic dimensions, but also feared due to increasing damages and casualties. Through this case, we investigate how media portray an endangered species, both feared and revered. We used text mining, social network and lexical analysis to analyze 11,000 news articles dealing with Asian elephants over 13 years. We found a multifaceted image of the species with various framings. Most prevalent topics were local events recounting damages on crops, villagers' and elephants' deaths. Media also covered various topics from international traffic to conflict mitigation and conservation programs. Thematic articles depicted an institutional representation of human-elephant interactions focusing on global trends and management schemes, using a technical and sanitized lexicon. Conversely, event-driven reports were anchored in spatial and temporal lexicon, recounting elephant encounters and their specific behaviors, while quoting inhabitants with a highly emotional narrative. Our study suggests that event-driven articles highlighted the emotional response to damages caused by individual elephants rather than the demonization of the species. We suggest that, in the context of human-wildlife conflicts, fear and trauma should be better acknowledged to help reducing discrepancies found in media narratives before it fosters other sentiments such as anger and frustration that may impede conservation efforts.

Asian elephants distinguish sexual status and identity of unfamiliar elephants using urinary odours.

Despite the ubiquity of odours in mammals, few studies have documented the natural olfactory abilities of many 'non-model' species such as the Asian elephant. As Asian elephants are endangered, we may apply odours to more effectively manage threatened populations. We implemented a habituation-discrimination paradigm for the first time in Asian elephants to test the ability of elephants to discriminate between unfamiliar male elephant urine, hypothesizing that elephants would successfully distinguish non-musth from musth urine and also distinguish identity between two closely related individuals. We conducted two bioassay series, exposing three female and three male zoo-housed elephants to the same urine sample (non-musth urine in the first series, and urine from an unfamiliar individual in the second) over 5 days. On the sixth day, we simultaneously presented each elephant with a novel sample (either musth urine or urine from a second unfamiliar individual) alongside the habituated urine sample, comparing rates of chemosensory response to each sample to indicate discrimination. All elephants successfully discriminated non-musth from musth urine, and also urine from two unfamiliar half-brothers. Our results further demonstrate the remarkable olfactory abilities of elephants with promising implications for conservation and management.

Between conflict and coexistence: Wildlife in rubber‐dominated landscapes

AbstractThe continuing loss and degradation of their natural habitats forces some wildlife species to increasingly extend their habitats into farmlands, thereby intensifying conflicts with people as resources diminish. Despite massive expansion in rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) plantations in recent decades, little is known about the diversity and distribution of wild mammals in rubber‐dominated landscapes or the associated human‐wildlife conflicts. We assessed the presence and diversity of mammalian wildlife and damage occurrence in such rubber landscapes in southern Thailand, in and around Tai Rom Yen National Park. We interviewed 180 farmers about wildlife visits to their farms and the resulting damage. We conducted 50 transect walks within and adjacent to a natural forest and deployed camera traps at the boundary between the plantations and the forest, as well as deeper into the forest, to assess wildlife presence. A total of 35 mammal species were recorded inside the forest. More than 70% of these were also present at the forest boundary, but species presence and diversity were far lower in the farmland. Elephants (Elephas maximus) were responsible for 90% of wildlife damage incidents within the rubber plantations, with 86% of these cases affecting young plants that had not yet been tapped. Although almost half of the survey respondents reported elephants visiting their farms, less than half of them reported damage. These results suggest that rubber‐dominated landscapes surrounding protected areas have the potential to facilitate coexistence between people and certain wildlife species, particularly if young plants are better protected and plantation management is made more wildlife friendly.

Do food distribution and competitor density affect agonistic behaviour within and between clans in a high fission-fusion species?

According to the ecological model of female social relationships (EMFSR), within-group competition and between-group competition in female-bonded species are shaped by food distribution. Strong between-group contests are expected over large, monopolizable resources and high population density, but not when low-quality food is distributed across large, undefended home ranges. Within-group contests are expected to be more frequent with increasing heterogeneity among feeding sites and with group size. We tested these predictions in female Asian elephants, which show traits associated with infrequent contests-graminivory, high fission-fusion and overlapping home ranges. We examined how food distribution and competitor density affected agonistic interactions within and between female elephant clans (social groupings) in the Kabini grassland, southern India. We found stronger between-clan contest in the grassland than that known from neighbouring forests, and more frequent agonism between females between clans than within clans. Such strong between-clan contest was attributable to the grassland being a food-rich habitat patch, thus supporting the EMFSR. Within-clan agonism was also frequent, but did not increase with food heterogeneity, contradicting the EMFSR. Contrary to recent claims, increasing within-clan agonism with group size suggested ecological constraints on large groups despite high fission-fusion. High population density may explain such frequent contests despite graminivory and fission-fusion.

Walking Through Elephant Cancer Resistance: What it can teach us about elephants, genetics and disease defenses

Cancer is a disease that affects the whole animal kingdom, but it does not behave equally in all the species. Elephants are one of the animals that even though have a greater number of cells in their body they present a low cancer rate. This phenomenon is also known as the Peto’s Paradox. Scientists have concluded that elephants have greater immunity to cancer because their genome has extra copies of tumor suppressor genes: TP53 and LIF. Even though elephants have a big immunity to cancer, they still get the disease, for example Asian elephants are more susceptible of getting reproductive tract neoplasia. Exploring this information is essential to understand how cancer behaves and how our own genes could help us fight the disease. This paper is a review of the actual knowledge the scientific community has regarding how cancer works in elephants, with the final goal of exploring the meaning this has into our understanding of genomics and how it could help us to develop a cure for cancer. 

Variation of weekly home range characteristics of Sumatran elephants (Elephas maximus sumatranus) in Bentang Seblat, Bengkulu Province, Indonesia

Abstract. Ningrum IK, Santosa Y, Setiawan Y. 2023. Variation of weekly home range characteristics of Sumatran elephants (Elephas maximus sumatranus) in Bentang Seblat, Bengkulu Province, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 24: 5854-5862. Bentang Seblat is one of the areas of conflict between Sumatran elephants and humans arising from space use problems because Sumatran elephants have specific preferences for habitat characteristics. This study aims to identify the characteristics of the weekly home range and analyze the relationship of weekly home range with habitat characteristics of Sumatran elephants in Bentang Seblat. GPS collar data from November 2020 until August 2022 were obtained from the Natural Resources Conservation Agency of Bengkulu-Lampung Province and habitat characteristics were obtained from Landsat 8 imagery. The data obtained were analyzed using chi-square test and Multiple Regression Analysis (MRA) with five variables: land cover, slope, distance from water sources, roads, and settlements. The results showed that the weekly home range was between 2.67 ha-239.98 ha, averaging 46.1 ha. The highest percentage of each habitat characteristic includes secondary forest (55.38%), flat slopes (59.01%), distances of 0-450 m from water sources (35.11%), distances of 0-400 m from roads (70.81%), and distances of 6-8 km from settlements (50.37%). The weekly home range is closely related to all habitat characteristics, with the highest level of relationship significance being the distance from water sources and the distance from the settlement.

Input Behavior of Farmer Production Factors in the Range of Asian Elephant Distribution: Survey Data from 1264 Households in Yunnan Province, China

This article, based on the sustainable livelihood framework and survey data from 1264 households in Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture, Puer City, and Lincang City in Yunnan Province, China, analyzes the impact mechanism of livelihood capital on the production input behavior of farmers affected by Asian elephant damage and the moderating effect of Asian elephant damage on this process using ordinary least squares (OLS) models. The study finds the following: (1) Asian elephant damage has a significant negative effect on farmers’ production input, meaning that as the severity of Asian elephant damage increases, farmers reduce their input into agricultural production factors. (2) Livelihood capital has a significant positive effect on farmers’ production input, and both the increment and stock of livelihood capital promote an increase in farmers’ production input. (3) Asian elephant damage strengthens the influence of livelihood capital on farmers’ inputs of agricultural production factors. Based on these findings, four recommendations are proposed: emphasizing the cultivation and enhancement of farmers’ livelihood capital, improving strategies for managing and preventing wildlife damage, optimizing the economic compensation mechanism for human–wildlife conflicts, and adhering to sustainable development and resource allocation. These recommendations aim to enhance wildlife conservation and management policies, strengthen farmers’ risk-coping capabilities, and ensure the sustainability of agricultural production and livelihoods.

DNA Detection Sensitivity Test from Blood Sample Extraction of Sumatran Elephant (Elephas Maximus Sumatranus) Male at Elephant Training Center, Way Kambas National Park Using Simple and Molecular Methods

DNA detection of male sumatran elephants' (Elephas maximus sumatranus) blood samples using simple and molecular methods are ways to find out the DNA quality from extracted samples. Molecular biology analysis was done in Biotechnology Laboratory, Lampung Disease Investigation Center, under the Institution Nation Strategy Grant, Directorate General of Research Empowerment and Development, Ministri of Research, Technology and Higher Education 2018 Number 393/UN26.21/PN/2018. Sensitivity test on 12 blood samples was conducted using simple and molecular methods. Simple method is based on 1% gel agarose electrophoresis in TAE (Tris-acetate EDTA) buffer while molecular method involves Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) based Glyseraldehyde-3-Phosphate Dehydrogenase (GAPDH) primer. Of 12 samples extracted and tested, 10 samples using molecular method showed DNA bands. Sensitivity value (83.33%) of diagnostic calculation showed that molecular method is more sensitive in detecting DNA.

Distribution and ranging area of elephant in Simpan Panti Forest, Kota Tinggi, Johor, Malaysia

Abstract. Hassan NHN, Abdullah NM, Norazlimi NA, Saaban S, Yazi MFA. 2023. Distribution and ranging area of elephant in Simpan Panti Forest, Kota Tinggi, Johor, Malaysia. Biodiversitas 24: 5731-5738. Home range estimation is one of the most used animal ecology studies using a Geographic Information System (GIS). One adult female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758) was fitted with a telemetry satellite collar African Wildlife Tracking (AWT) to determine its home range size distribution through its ranging behaviour and to identify the relationship between the GPS collar location record and the area covered. The home range estimation was determined using GPS collar location data from a satellite telemetry system and analyzed by using the Minimum Convex Polygon methods. GPS collar location data were obtained from the Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP). The movement of elephant data was overlayed with the land use data of the Simpan Panti Forest (Hutan Simpan Panti), Kota Tinggi District, Johor, Malaysia before being exported to ArcGIS Pro software. The ArcGIS Pro software can estimate this Asian elephant home range sizes by using the MCP method for twelve months, from 1 June 2019 until 31 May 2020. The total home range size is 447.17 km². Home range size is estimated to be 31.77 to 303.86 km² in one year. The size of this home range has presumably been impacted by extensive human activities such as highways and settlement areas. So, good and strong management is needed to control this conflict for humans to live in harmony in one area and protect the remaining forest reserve area from expanding to agricultural activity and human development areas.

Testing the Effectiveness of the "Smelly" Elephant Repellent in Controlled Experiments in Semi-Captive Asian and African Savanna Elephants.

Crop-raiding by elephants is one of the most prevalent forms of human-elephant conflict and is increasing with the spread of agriculture into wildlife range areas. As the magnitude of conflicts between people and elephants increases across Africa and Asia, mitigating and reducing the impacts of elephant crop-raiding has become a major focus of conservation intervention. In this study, we tested the responses of semi-captive elephants to the "smelly" elephant repellent, a novel olfactory crop-raiding mitigation method. At two trial sites, in Zambia and Thailand, African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) were exposed to the repellent, in order to test whether or not they entered an area protected by the repellent and whether they ate the food provided. The repellent elicited clear reactions from both study groups of elephants compared to control conditions. Generalised linear models revealed that the elephants were more alert, sniffed more, and vocalised more when they encountered the repellent. Although the repellent triggered a response, it did not prevent elephants from entering plots protected by the repellent or from eating crops, unlike in trials conducted with wild elephants. Personality played a role in responses towards the repellent, as the elephants that entered the experimental plots were bolder and more curious individuals. We conclude that, although captive environments provide controlled settings for experimental testing, the ecological validity of testing human-elephant conflict mitigation methods with captive wildlife should be strongly considered. This study also shows that understanding animal behaviour is essential for improving human-elephant coexistence and for designing deterrence mechanisms. Appreciating personality traits in elephants, especially amongst "problem" elephants who have a greater propensity to crop raid, could lead to the design of new mitigation methods designed to target these individuals.

Local's attitude towards African elephant conservation in and around Chebra Churchura National Park, Ethiopia.

Economic growth and development in developing countries often involves land-use changes which fragment natural areas, bring humans and wildlife into closer proximity and escalating human- wildlife conflicts. Human-wildlife conflicts impose huge costs on local people and their livelihoods. Balancing developmental activities with the conservation of mega fauna such as the African and Asian elephants (Loxodonta Africana, Elephas maximus; respectively) remains problematic. Understanding the reasoning upon which perceived risks and level of human- elephant conflict laid is critical to address societal or cultural beliefs in order to develop effective mitigation strategies. The perceived risks and level of conflict have to be properly addressed for effective planning and implementation of appropriate mitigation strategies. We studied human- elephant interactions in Chebra Churchura National Park Ethiopia (CCNP) from September 8 to October 28, 2022 and collected baseline data on human perceptions of conflicts in an area where elephant populations are increasing. To complete our study, we surveyed 800 household from 20 villages adjacent to the CCNP. The purpose of this investigation was to identify the relevance of the existing human-elephant conflict (HEC) with the attitude of local communities towards elephant conservation, the park management and perceived effective mitigation techniques. The local communities trust in the implementation of different traditional mitigation techniques is generally weak. The households interviewed were less positive towards the effectiveness of most of the traditional techniques in chasing elephants away from their farm lands. They believed that elephants had already adapted and do not respond to most of these techniques. Against the above perception in exception of their usual absence and late arrival, perception of local communities about shooting warning gun by park scouts is among the most accepted effective methods in chasing elephants from their farm lands. The majority of respondents believe that separation of elephants and humans by constricting barriers is the best solution to the problem. The idea of constructing barriers such as electric fence; ditch or concrete wall and blocking corridors between the Park boundary and the villages have become the most popular idea of local communities followed by relocating people to other safer places, as the best protection method against the elephant attack irrespective of the associated initial and maintenance costs.

Distribution and association of antimicrobial resistance and virulence characteristics in Enterococcus spp. isolates from captive Asian elephants in China.

Enterococcus spp., as an opportunistic pathogen, are widely distributed in the environment and the gastrointestinal tracts of both humans and animals. Captive Asian elephants, popular animals at tourist attractions, have frequent contact with humans. However, there is limited information on whether captive Asian elephants can serve as a reservoir of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). The aim of this study was to characterize AMR, antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), virulence-associated genes (VAGs), gelatinase activity, hemolysis activity, and biofilm formation of Enterococcus spp. isolated from captive Asian elephants, and to analyze the potential correlations among these factors. A total of 62 Enterococcus spp. strains were isolated from fecal samples of captive Asian elephants, comprising 17 Enterococcus hirae (27.4%), 12 Enterococcus faecalis (19.4%), 8 Enterococcus faecium (12.9%), 7 Enterococcus avium (11.3%), 7 Enterococcus mundtii (11.3%), and 11 other Enterococcus spp. (17.7%). Isolates exhibited high resistance to rifampin (51.6%) and streptomycin (37.1%). 50% of Enterococcus spp. isolates exhibited multidrug resistance (MDR), with all E. faecium strains demonstrating MDR. Additionally, nine ARGs were identified, with tet(M) (51.6%), erm(B) (24.2%), and cfr (21.0%) showing relatively higher detection rates. Biofilm formation, gelatinase activity, and α-hemolysin activity were observed in 79.0, 24.2, and 14.5% of the isolates, respectively. A total of 18 VAGs were detected, with gelE being the most prevalent (69.4%). Correlation analysis revealed 229 significant positive correlations and 12 significant negative correlations. The strongest intra-group correlations were observed among VAGs. Notably, we found that vancomycin resistance showed a significant positive correlation with ciprofloxacin resistance, cfr, and gelatinase activity, respectively. In conclusion, captive Asian elephants could serve as significant reservoirs for the dissemination of AMR to humans.

Mitochondrial genome sequence comparisons indicate that the elephant louse Haematomyzus elephantis (Piaget, 1869) contains cryptic species.

The parvorder Rhynchopthirina contains three currently recognised species of lice that parasitize elephants (both African savanna elephant Loxodonta africana and Asian elephant Elephas maximus), desert warthogs (Phacochoerus aethiopicus) and Red River hogs (Potamochoerus porcus), respectively. The Asian elephant lice and the African savanna elephant lice are currently treated as the same species, Haematomyzus elephantis (Piaget, 1869), based on morphology despite the fact that their hosts diverged 8.4 million years ago. In the current study, we sequenced 23 mitochondrial (mt) genes of African savanna elephant lice collected in South Africa and analysed the sequence divergence between African savanna elephant lice and previously sequenced Asian elephant lice. Sequence comparisons revealed >23% divergence for the 23 mt genes as a whole and ~17% divergence for cox1 gene between African savanna and Asian elephant lice, which were far higher than the divergence expected within a species. Furthermore, the mt gene sequence divergences between these lice are 3.76-4.6 times higher than that between their hosts, the African savanna and Asian elephants, which are expected for the co-divergence and co-evolution between lice and their elephant hosts. We conclude that (1) H. elephantis (Piaget, 1869) contains cryptic species and (2) African savanna and Asian elephant lice are different species genetically that may have co-diverged and co-evolved with their hosts.

Microbiome variations among age classes and diets of captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Thailand using full-length 16S rRNA nanopore sequencing

Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) is the national symbol of Thailand and linked to Thai history and culture for centuries. The elephant welfare improvement is one of the major components to achieve sustainable captive management. Microbiome inhabiting digestive tracts have been shown with symbiotic relations to host health. This work provided high-resolution microbiome profiles of 32 captive elephants at a species level by utilizing full-length 16S rRNA gene nanopore sequencing. Eleven common uncultured bacterial species were found across elephants fed with solid food including uncultured bacterium Rikenellaceae RC9 gut group, Kiritimatiellae WCHB1-41, Phascolarctobacterium, Oscillospiraceae NK4A214 group, Christensenellaceae R-7 group, Oribacterium, Oscillospirales UCG-010, Lachnospiraceae, Bacteroidales F082, uncultured rumen Rikenellaceae RC9 gut group, and Lachnospiraceae AC2044 group. We observed microbiome shifts along the age classes of baby (0–2 years), juvenile (2–10 years), and adult (> 10 years). Interestingly, we found distinct microbiome profiles among adult elephants fed with a local palm, Caryota urens, as a supplement. Potential beneficial microbes have been revealed according to the age classes and feed diets. The retrieved microbiome data could be provided as good baseline microbial profiles for monitoring elephant health, suggesting further studies towards dietary selection suitable for each age class and the use of local supplementary diets.

Fecal Metagenomics Study Reveals That a Low-Fiber Diet Drives the Migration of Wild Asian Elephants in Xishuangbanna, China.

The rare northward migration of wild Asian elephants in Xishuangbanna, China, has attracted global attention. Elephant migration is a complex ecological process, and the factors driving this long-distance migration remain elusive. In this study, fresh fecal samples were collected from both captive and wild Asian elephants, along with breastfed calves residing within the Wild Elephant Valley of Xishuangbanna. Our aim was to investigate the relationship between diet, gut microbiota, and migration patterns in Asian elephants through comprehensive metagenomic sequencing analyses. Among the breastfed Asian elephant group, Bacteroidales and Escherichia emerged as the dominant bacterial taxa, while the primary carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes) enriched in this group were GH2, GH20, GH92, GH97, GH38, GH23, and GH43, aligning with their dietary source, namely breast milk. The bacterial taxa enriched in captive Asian elephants (CAEs) were mainly Butyrivibrio, Treponema, and Fibrobacter, and the enriched lignocellulose-degrading enzymes mainly included GH25, GH10, GH9, and cellulase (EC 3.2.1.4). These findings are consistent with the high-fiber diet of captive elephants. In contrast, the main bacterial taxa enriched in wild Asian elephants (WAEs) were Ruminococcus and Eubacterium, and the enriched CAZymes included GH109, GH20, GH33, GH28, GH106, and GH39. The abundance of lignocellulose-degrading bacteria and CAZyme content was low in WAEs, indicating challenges in processing high-fiber foods and explaining the low-fiber diet in this group. These findings suggest that wild elephant herds migrate in search of nutritionally suitable, low-fiber food sources.

Is there scope for growth? Mapping habitat suitability for Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) across its range in China

Maintenance of sufficient habitat for large terrestrial mammals in increasingly human-dominated landscapes is challenging. Wild Asian elephants in China were historically widespread, but now comprise 293 individuals confined to three prefectures in southwestern Yunnan Province. Effective legal protection has permitted population growth of Chinese elephants, but it is not known why elephants are confined to the southwestern portion of Yunnan, nor has there been a comprehensive assessment of the extent, quality and carrying capacity of habitat within their potential range. We used multiscale multivariable species-distribution modelling to evaluate the effects of topography, land use, transport infrastructure and settlements on habitat suitability for elephants throughout Yunnan during 2012–2021, using data from literature records, field surveys and camera traps. Elephant distribution was strongly influenced by the presence of forest measured at coarse (32-km) scales, with forest fragmentation and percentage cover together accounting for 64% of total variability, whereas settlements and infrastructure had a relatively minor effect (1.7%). Almost 17,430 km2 of habitat, mostly along the border with Myanmar and Lao PDR, was predicted to be highly suitable for elephants, and a smaller amount in two prefectures that currently lack elephants. We estimate that Yunnan could support an additional 810 (range 300–1469) elephants, more than twice the current population. However, 90% of habitat predicted to be suitable was outside currently protected areas. By making conservative predictions about the potential for restoration or enhancement of habitat, we project that Yunnan could sustain a further 305 elephants, bringing the total population to 1408. Our results have relevance for planning of a proposed national park for elephants in the province.

DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF A STANDARDIZED SYSTEM FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF LOCOMOTOR HEALTH IN ELEPHANTS UNDER HUMAN CARE.

Although lameness is a common problem in elephants (Asian elephant [Elephas maximus] and African elephants Loxodonta africana and Loxodonta cyclotis) under human care, there has not been a standardized lameness assessment system to date. This study developed and evaluated a standardized system for the assessment of locomotion in elephants under human care regardless of husbandry system. In total, 72 elephants out of a possible 73 in the United Kingdom and Ireland were filmed from behind, from in front, and from both sides. Using a questionnaire and a select panel of elephant specialists, a zoo veterinarian, and a locomotion expert, a numerical rating scoring (NRS) system was proposed. Locomotion was scored on a 4-point scale with numerical values 0-4 corresponding to specific criteria as follows: 0 = clinically sound, 1 = stiffness, 2 = abnormal tracking, and 4 = reluctance to bear weight. The intra- and interobserver repeatability of five veterinary surgeons using this system was determined and compared with a visual analog scale (VAS) expressed as a 100-mm line. Overall intraobserver reliability was moderate (Cohen's kappa [κ] = 0.676) and interobserver reliability was fair (κ = 0.37) for the presence of lameness. Interobserver agreement improved from the first scoring to second scoring from slight agreement to fair agreement for stiffness and reluctance to bear weight. Abnormal tracking had moderate intraobserver agreement for both scoring sessions. There were wide widths of agreement for the VAS interobserver (67 mm); however, they were narrower for the intraobserver (33 mm). The developed NRS can be used on freely moving elephants to evaluate elephant locomotion, regardless of husbandry methods, and has been shown to be more reliable than a VAS.

Public Willingness to Pay for an Entrance Fee to National Elephant Conservation Center (NECC), Peninsular Malaysia

Wildlife especially large mammals such as elephants are an important part of an ecosystem providing various ecological functions and services, although they are often involved in human-wildlife conflict. The National Elephant Conservation Center (NECC) in the Pahang state of Peninsular Malaysia was established to ensure that the survival of the Asian Elephant ( Elephas maximus) in Peninsular Malaysia through direct management, as well as educational and public awareness activities. However, no entrance fee has been imposed since the establishment of the center in 1989 (32 years). This study aimed to determine public willingness to pay for an entrance fee in the NECC. By using the open-ended contingent valuation method (CVM), the mean public willingness to pay for an entrance fee in the NECC during the non-peak season amounted to RM4.65/person/visit whereas it was RM7.09/person/visit during the peak season. The study would serve as a reference for entrance fee implementation for a conservation center as a form of financial aid to sustain the center as well as highlight the importance of public engagement in elephant conservation.

A first look at sound transmission through the elephant middle ear—Not what we expected

Elephants, the largest terrestrial mammals, have the lowest frequency auditory system, even lower than previously thought, which likely facilitates their long-distance communication. We used a 3D laser Doppler vibrometer to quantify ossicular motions of cadaveric middle ears of both African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants as well as humans to understand the mechanics of sound transmission in animals with larger ears than humans. Velocity in the x, y, and z directions from the umbo and stapes over the 7–13,000 Hz range were converted to their anatomical piston directions. The magnitude of umbo velocity was an order of magnitude greater in elephants than humans below the elephant middle ear resonance of about 300 Hz, whereas the stapes velocity was 5 times greater. These higher magnitude velocities are most likely due to an eardrum that is 7 times larger. Despite elephant ossicles being 10 times heavier, the magnitude of stapes velocity above 1 kHz in elephants and humans was similar, but even more surprising, elephants showed much more group delay than anticipated. We present our results in the context of eardrum size, ossicle mass, the malleus-incus lever ratio that characterize elephant and human middle ear sound transmission. [Work supported by the Amelia Peabody Fund and K01 DC017812.]